Climate change

This article is about the present-day human-induced rise in global temperatures. For natural historical climate trends, see Climate variability and change.

"Global warming" redirects here. For other uses, see Climate change (disambiguation) and Global warming (disambiguation).

Changes in surface air temperature over the past 50 years. The Arctic has warmed the most, and temperatures on land have generally increased more than sea surface temperatures.

Earth's average surface air temperature has increased almost 1.5 °C (about 2.5 °F) since the Industrial Revolution. Natural forces cause some variability, but the 20-year average shows the progressive influence of human activity.

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel burning since the Industrial Revolution. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases. These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary greenhouse gas driving global warming, has grown by about 50% and is at levels not seen for millions of years.

Climate change has an increasingly large impact on the environment. Deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Amplified warming in the Arctic has contributed to thawing permafrost, retreat of glaciers and sea ice decline. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimize future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise.

Climate change threatens people with increased flooding, extreme heat, increased food and water scarcity, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can also be a result. The World Health Organization calls climate change one of the biggest threats to global health in the 21st century. Societies and ecosystems will experience more severe risks without action to limit warming. Adapting to climate change through efforts like flood control measures or drought-resistant crops partially reduces climate change risks, although some limits to adaptation have already been reached. Poorer communities are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change.

Examples of some effects of climate change: Wildfire intensified by heat and drought, bleaching of corals occurring more often due to marine heatwaves, and worsening droughts compromising water supplies.

Many climate change impacts have been felt in recent years, with 2023 the warmest on record at +1.48 °C (2.66 °F) since regular tracking began in 1850. Additional warming will increase these impacts and can trigger tipping points, such as melting all of the Greenland ice sheet. Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C". However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.8 °C (5.0 °F) by the end of the century. Limiting warming to 1.5 °C would require halving emissions by 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050.

Fossil fuel use can be phased out by conserving energy and switching to energy sources that do not produce significant carbon pollution. These energy sources include wind, solar, hydro, and nuclear power. Cleanly generated electricity can replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and running industrial processes. Carbon can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and farming with methods that capture carbon in soil.

Terminology

Before the 1980s it was unclear whether the warming effect of increased greenhouse gases was stronger than the cooling effect of airborne particulates in air pollution. Scientists used the term inadvertent climate modification to refer to human impacts on the climate at this time. In the 1980s, the terms global warming and climate change became more common, often being used interchangeably. Scientifically, global warming refers only to increased surface warming, while climate change describes both global warming and its effects on Earth's climate system, such as precipitation changes.

Climate change can also be used more broadly to include changes to the climate that have happened throughout Earth's history. Global warming—used as early as 1975—became the more popular term after NASA climate scientist James Hansen used it in his 1988 testimony in the U.S. Senate. Since the 2000s, climate change has increased usage. Various scientists, politicians and media may use the terms climate crisis or climate emergency to talk about climate change, and may use the term global heating instead of global warming.

Global temperature rise

Further information: Global surface temperature

Temperatures prior to present-day global warming

Main articles: Climate variability and change; Temperature record of the last 2,000 years; and Paleoclimatology

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the last 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue. Directly observed data is in red.

Over the last few million years the climate cycled through ice ages. One of the hotter periods was the Last Interglacial, around 125,000 years ago, where temperatures were between 0.5 °C and 1.5 °C warmer than before the start of global warming. This period saw sea levels 5 to 10 metres higher than today. The most recent glacial maximum 20,000 years ago was some 5–7 °C colder. This period has sea levels that were over 125 metres (410 ft) lower than today.

Temperatures stabilized in the current interglacial period beginning 11,700 years ago. This period also saw the start of agriculture. Historical patterns of warming and cooling, like the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age, did not occur at the same time across different regions. Temperatures may have reached as high as those of the late 20th century in a limited set of regions. Climate information for that period comes from climate proxies, such as trees and ice cores.

Warming since the Industrial Revolution

In recent decades, new high temperature records have substantially outpaced new low temperature records on a growing portion of Earth's surface.

There has been an increase in ocean heat content during recent decades as the oceans absorb over 90% of the heat from global warming.

Around 1850 thermometer records began to provide global coverage. Between the 18th century and 1970 there was little net warming, as the warming impact of greenhouse gas emissions was offset by cooling from sulfur dioxide emissions. Sulfur dioxide causes acid rain, but it also produces sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere, which reflect sunlight and cause global dimming. After 1970, the increasing accumulation of greenhouse gases and controls on sulfur pollution led to a marked increase in temperature.

NASA animation portraying global surface temperature changes from 1880 to 2023. The colour blue denotes cooler temperatures and red denotes warmer temperatures.

Ongoing changes in climate have had no precedent for several thousand years. Multiple independent datasets all show worldwide increases in surface temperature, at a rate of around 0.2 °C per decade. The 2014–2023 decade warmed to an average 1.19 °C [1.06–1.30 °C] compared to the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900). Not every single year was warmer than the last: internal climate variability processes can make any year 0.2 °C warmer or colder than the average. From 1998 to 2013, negative phases of two such processes, Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) caused a short slower period of warming called the "global warming hiatus". After the "hiatus", the opposite occurred, with years like 2023 exhibiting temperatures well above even the recent average. This is why the temperature change is defined in terms of a 20-year average, which reduces the noise of hot and cold years and decadal climate patterns, and detects the long-term signal.

A wide range of other observations reinforce the evidence of warming. The upper atmosphere is cooling, because greenhouse gases are trapping heat near the Earth's surface, and so less heat is radiating into space. Warming reduces average snow cover and forces the retreat of glaciers. At the same time, warming also causes greater evaporation from the oceans, leading to more atmospheric humidity, more and heavier precipitation. Plants are flowering earlier in spring, and thousands of animal species have been permanently moving to cooler areas.

Differences by region

Different regions of the world warm at different rates. The pattern is independent of where greenhouse gases are emitted, because the gases persist long enough to diffuse across the planet. Since the pre-industrial period, the average surface temperature over land regions has increased almost twice as fast as the global average surface temperature. This is because oceans lose more heat by evaporation and oceans can store a lot of heat. The thermal energy in the global climate system has grown with only brief pauses since at least 1970, and over 90% of this extra energy has been stored in the ocean. The rest has heated the atmosphere, melted ice, and warmed the continents.

The Northern Hemisphere and the North Pole have warmed much faster than the South Pole and Southern Hemisphere. The Northern Hemisphere not only has much more land, but also more seasonal snow cover and sea ice. As these surfaces flip from reflecting a lot of light to being dark after the ice has melted, they start absorbing more heat. Local black carbon deposits on snow and ice also contribute to Arctic warming. Arctic surface temperatures are increasing between three and four times faster than in the rest of the world. Melting of ice sheets near the poles weakens both the Atlantic and the Antarctic limb of thermohaline circulation, which further changes the distribution of heat and precipitation around the globe.

Future global temperatures

CMIP6 multi-model projections of global surface temperature changes for the year 2090 relative to the 1850–1900 average. The current trajectory for warming by the end of the century is roughly halfway between these two extremes.

The World Meteorological Organization estimates there is an 80% chance that global temperatures will exceed 1.5 °C warming for at least one year between 2024 and 2028. The chance of the 5-year average being above 1.5 °C is almost half.

The IPCC expects the 20-year average global temperature to exceed +1.5 °C in the early 2030s. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2021) included projections that by 2100 global warming is very likely to reach 1.0–1.8 °C under a scenario with very low emissions of greenhouse gases, 2.1–3.5 °C under an intermediate emissions scenario,

or 3.3–5.7 °C under a very high emissions scenario. The warming will continue past 2100 in the intermediate and high emission scenarios, with future projections of global surface temperatures by year 2300 being similar to millions of years ago.

The remaining carbon budget for staying beneath certain temperature increases is determined by modelling the carbon cycle and climate sensitivity to greenhouse gases. According to UNEP, global warming can be kept below 1.5 °C with a 50% chance if emissions after 2023 do not exceed 200 gigatonnes of CO₂. This corresponds to around 4 years of current emissions. To stay under 2.0 °C, the carbon budget is 900 gigatonnes of CO₂, or 16 years of current emissions.

Causes of recent global temperature rise

Main article: Causes of climate change

Physical drivers of global warming that has happened so far. Future global warming potential for long lived drivers like carbon dioxide emissions is not represented. Whiskers on each bar show the possible error range.

The climate system experiences various cycles on its own which can last for years, decades or even centuries. For example, El Niño events cause short-term spikes in surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term cooling. Their relative frequency can affect global temperature trends on a decadal timescale. Other changes are caused by an imbalance of energy from external forcings. Examples of these include changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases, solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

To determine the human contribution to climate change, unique "fingerprints" for all potential causes are developed and compared with both observed patterns and known internal climate variability. For example, solar forcing—whose fingerprint involves warming the entire atmosphere—is ruled out because only the lower atmosphere has warmed. Atmospheric aerosols produce a smaller, cooling effect. Other drivers, such as changes in albedo, are less impactful.

Greenhouse gases

Main articles: Greenhouse gas, Greenhouse gas emissions, Greenhouse effect, and Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

CO₂ concentrations over the last 800,000 years as measured from ice cores (blue/green) and directly (black)

Greenhouse gases are transparent to sunlight, and thus allow it to pass through the atmosphere to heat the Earth's surface. The Earth radiates it as heat, and greenhouse gases absorb a portion of it. This absorption slows the rate at which heat escapes into space, trapping heat near the Earth's surface and warming it over time.

While water vapour (≈50%) and clouds (≈25%) are the biggest contributors to the greenhouse effect, they primarily change as a function of temperature and are therefore mostly considered to be feedbacks that change climate sensitivity. On the other hand, concentrations of gases such as CO₂ (≈20%), tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide are added or removed independently from temperature, and are therefore considered to be external forcings that change global temperatures.

Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally-occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be about 33 °C warmer than it would have been in their absence. Human activity since the Industrial Revolution, mainly extracting and burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In 2022, the concentrations of CO₂ and methane had increased by about 50% and 164%, respectively, since 1750. These CO₂ levels are higher than they have been at any time during the last 14 million years. Concentrations of methane are far higher than they were over the last 800,000 years.

The Global Carbon Project shows how additions to CO₂ since 1880 have been caused by different sources ramping up one after another.

Global human-caused greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 were equivalent to 59 billion tonnes of CO₂. Of these emissions, 75% was CO₂, 18% was methane, 4% was nitrous oxide, and 2% was fluorinated gases. CO₂ emissions primarily come from burning fossil fuels to provide energy for transport, manufacturing, heating, and electricity. Additional CO₂ emissions come from deforestation and industrial processes, which include the CO₂ released by the chemical reactions for making cement, steel, aluminum, and fertilizer. Methane emissions come from livestock, manure, rice cultivation, landfills, wastewater, and coal mining, as well as oil and gas extraction. Nitrous oxide emissions largely come from the microbial decomposition of fertilizer.

While methane only lasts in the atmosphere for an average of 12 years, CO₂ lasts much longer. The Earth's surface absorbs CO₂ as part of the carbon cycle. While plants on land and in the ocean absorb most excess emissions of CO₂ every year, that CO₂ is returned to the atmosphere when biological matter is digested, burns, or decays. Land-surface carbon sink processes, such as carbon fixation in the soil and photosynthesis, remove about 29% of annual global CO₂ emissions. The ocean has absorbed 20 to 30% of emitted CO₂ over the last two decades. CO₂ is only removed from the atmosphere for the long term when it is stored in the Earth's crust, which is a process that can take millions of years to complete.

Land surface changes

The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.

Around 30% of Earth's land area is largely unusable for humans (glaciers, deserts, etc.), 26% is forests, 10% is shrubland and 34% is agricultural land. Deforestation is the main land use change contributor to global warming, as the destroyed trees release CO₂, and are not replaced by new trees, removing that carbon sink. Between 2001 and 2018, 27% of deforestation was from permanent clearing to enable agricultural expansion for crops and livestock. Another 24% has been lost to temporary clearing under the shifting cultivation agricultural systems. 26% was due to logging for wood and derived products, and wildfires have accounted for the remaining 23%. Some forests have not been fully cleared, but were already degraded by these impacts. Restoring these forests also recovers their potential as a carbon sink.

Local vegetation cover impacts how much of the sunlight gets reflected back into space (albedo), and how much heat is lost by evaporation. For instance, the change from a dark forest to grassland makes the surface lighter, causing it to reflect more sunlight. Deforestation can also modify the release of chemical compounds that influence clouds, and by changing wind patterns. In tropic and temperate areas the net effect is to produce significant warming, and forest restoration can make local temperatures cooler. At latitudes closer to the poles, there is a cooling effect as forest is replaced by snow-covered (and more reflective) plains. Globally, these increases in surface albedo have been the dominant direct influence on temperature from land use change. Thus, land use change to date is estimated to have a slight cooling effect.

Other factors

Aerosols and clouds

Air pollution, in the form of aerosols, affects the climate on a large scale. Aerosols scatter and absorb solar radiation. From 1961 to 1990, a gradual reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface was observed. This phenomenon is popularly known as global dimming, and is primarily attributed to sulfate aerosols produced by the combustion of fossil fuels with heavy sulfur concentrations like coal and bunker fuel. Smaller contributions come from black carbon (from combustion of fossil fuels and biomass), and from dust. Globally, aerosols have been declining since 1990 due to pollution controls, meaning that they no longer mask greenhouse gas warming as much.

Aerosols also have indirect effects on the Earth's energy budget. Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets. They also reduce the growth of raindrops, which makes clouds more reflective to incoming sunlight. Indirect effects of aerosols are the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.

While aerosols typically limit global warming by reflecting sunlight, black carbon in soot that falls on snow or ice can contribute to global warming. Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea-level rise. Limiting new black carbon deposits in the Arctic could reduce global warming by 0.2 °C by 2050. The effect of decreasing sulfur content of fuel oil for ships since 2020 is estimated to cause an additional 0.05 °C increase in global mean temperature by 2050.

Solar and volcanic activity

Further information: Solar activity and climate

The Fourth National Climate Assessment ("NCA4", USGCRP, 2017) includes charts illustrating that neither solar nor volcanic activity can explain the observed warming.

As the Sun is the Earth's primary energy source, changes in incoming sunlight directly affect the climate system. Solar irradiance has been measured directly by satellites, and indirect measurements are available from the early 1600s onwards. Since 1880, there has been no upward trend in the amount of the Sun's energy reaching the Earth, in contrast to the warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere). The upper atmosphere (the stratosphere) would also be warming if the Sun was sending more energy to Earth, but instead, it has been cooling. This is consistent with greenhouse gases preventing heat from leaving the Earth's atmosphere.

Explosive volcanic eruptions can release gases, dust and ash that partially block sunlight and reduce temperatures, or they can send water vapour into the atmosphere, which adds to greenhouse gases and increases temperatures. These impacts on temperature only last for several years, because both water vapour and volcanic material have low persistence in the atmosphere. volcanic CO₂ emissions are more persistent, but they are equivalent to less than 1% of current human-caused CO₂ emissions. Volcanic activity still represents the single largest natural impact (forcing) on temperature in the industrial era. Yet, like the other natural forcings, it has had negligible impacts on global temperature trends since the Industrial Revolution.

Climate change feedbacks

Main articles: Climate change feedbacks and Climate sensitivity

Sea ice reflects 50% to 70% of incoming sunlight, while the ocean, being darker, reflects only 6%. As an area of sea ice melts and exposes more ocean, more heat is absorbed by the ocean, raising temperatures that melt still more ice. This is a positive feedback process.

The climate system's response to an initial forcing is shaped by feedbacks, which either amplify or dampen the change. Self-reinforcing or positive feedbacks increase the response, while balancing or negative feedbacks reduce it. The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds. The primary balancing mechanism is radiative cooling, as Earth's surface gives off more heat to space in response to rising temperature. In addition to temperature feedbacks, there are feedbacks in the carbon cycle, such as the fertilizing effect of CO₂ on plant growth. Feedbacks are expected to trend in a positive direction as greenhouse gas emissions continue, raising climate sensitivity.

These feedback processes alter the pace of global warming. For instance, warmer air can hold more moisture in the form of water vapour, which is itself a potent greenhouse gas. Warmer air can also make clouds higher and thinner, and therefore more insulating, increasing climate warming. The reduction of snow cover and sea ice in the Arctic is another major feedback, this reduces the reflectivity of the Earth's surface in the region and accelerates Arctic warming. This additional warming also contributes to permafrost thawing, which releases methane and CO₂ into the atmosphere.

Around half of human-caused CO₂ emissions have been absorbed by land plants and by the oceans. This fraction is not static and if future CO₂ emissions decrease, the Earth will be able to absorb up to around 70%. If they increase substantially, it'll still absorb more carbon than now, but the overall fraction will decrease to below 40%. This is because climate change increases droughts and heat waves that eventually inhibit plant growth on land, and soils will release more carbon from dead plants when they are warmer. The rate at which oceans absorb atmospheric carbon will be lowered as they become more acidic and experience changes in thermohaline circulation and phytoplankton distribution. Uncertainty over feedbacks, particularly cloud cover, is the major reason why different climate models project different magnitudes of warming for a given amount of emissions.

Modelling

Further information: Climate model and Climate change scenario

Energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and Earth's surface. Most sunlight passes through the atmosphere to heat the Earth's surface, then greenhouse gases absorb most of the heat the Earth radiates in response. Adding to greenhouse gases increases this insulating effect, causing an energy imbalance that heats the planet up.

A climate model is a representation of the physical, chemical and biological processes that affect the climate system. Models include natural processes like changes in the Earth's orbit, historical changes in the Sun's activity, and volcanic forcing. Models are used to estimate the degree of warming future emissions will cause when accounting for the strength of climate feedbacks. Models also predict the circulation of the oceans, the annual cycle of the seasons, and the flows of carbon between the land surface and the atmosphere.

The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate current or past climates. Past models have underestimated the rate of Arctic shrinkage and underestimated the rate of precipitation increase. Sea level rise since 1990 was underestimated in older models, but more recent models agree well with observations. The 2017 United States-published National Climate Assessment notes that "climate models may still be underestimating or missing relevant feedback processes". Additionally, climate models may be unable to adequately predict short-term regional climatic shifts.

A subset of climate models add societal factors to a physical climate model. These models simulate how population, economic growth, and energy use affect—and interact with—the physical climate. With this information, these models can produce scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions. This is then used as input for physical climate models and carbon cycle models to predict how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases might change. Depending on the socioeconomic scenario and the mitigation scenario, models produce atmospheric CO₂ concentrations that range widely between 380 and 1400 ppm.

Impacts

Main article: Effects of climate change

The sixth IPCC Assessment Report projects changes in average soil moisture at 2.0 °C of warming, as measured in standard deviations from the 1850 to 1900 baseline.

Environmental effects

Further information: Effects of climate change on oceans and Effects of climate change on the water cycle

The environmental effects of climate change are broad and far-reaching, affecting oceans, ice, and weather. Changes may occur gradually or rapidly. Evidence for these effects comes from studying climate change in the past, from modelling, and from modern observations. Since the 1950s, droughts and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with increasing frequency. Extremely wet or dry events within the monsoon period have increased in India and East Asia. Monsoonal precipitation over the Northern Hemisphere has increased since 1980. The rainfall rate and intensity of hurricanes and typhoons is likely increasing, and the geographic range likely expanding poleward in response to climate warming. Frequency of tropical cyclones has not increased as a result of climate change.

Historical sea level reconstruction and projections up to 2100 published in 2017 by the U.S. Global Change Research Program

Global sea level is rising as a consequence of thermal expansion and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets. Sea level rise has increased over time, reaching 4.8 cm per decade between 2014 and 2023. Over the 21st century, the IPCC projects 32–62 cm of sea level rise under a low emission scenario, 44–76 cm under an intermediate one and 65–101 cm under a very high emission scenario. Marine ice sheet instability processes in Antarctica may add substantially to these values, including the possibility of a 2-meter sea level rise by 2100 under high emissions.

Climate change has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice. While ice-free summers are expected to be rare at 1.5 °C degrees of warming, they are set to occur once every three to ten years at a warming level of 2 °C. Higher atmospheric CO₂ concentrations cause more CO₂ to dissolve in the oceans, which is making them more acidic. Because oxygen is less soluble in warmer water, its concentrations in the ocean are decreasing, and dead zones are expanding.

Tipping points and long-term impacts

Different levels of global warming may cause different parts of Earth's climate system to reach tipping points that cause transitions to different states.

Main article: Tipping points in the climate system

Greater degrees of global warming increase the risk of passing through 'tipping points'—thresholds beyond which certain major impacts can no longer be avoided even if temperatures return to their previous state. For instance, the Greenland ice sheet is already melting, but if global warming reaches levels between 1.7 °C and 2.3 °C, its melting will continue until it fully disappears. If the warming is later reduced to 1.5 °C or less, it will still lose a lot more ice than if the warming was never allowed to reach the threshold in the first place. While the ice sheets would melt over millennia, other tipping points would occur faster and give societies less time to respond. The collapse of major ocean currents like the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC), and irreversible damage to key ecosystems like the Amazon rainforest and coral reefs can unfold in a matter of decades.

The long-term effects of climate change on oceans include further ice melt, ocean warming, sea level rise, ocean acidification and ocean deoxygenation. The timescale of long-term impacts are centuries to millennia due to CO₂'s long atmospheric lifetime. The result is an estimated total sea level rise of 2.3 metres per degree Celsius (4.2 ft/°F) after 2000 years. Oceanic CO₂ uptake is slow enough that ocean acidification will also continue for hundreds to thousands of years. Deep oceans (below 2,000 metres (6,600 ft)) are also already committed to losing over 10% of their dissolved oxygen by the warming which occurred to date. Further, the West Antarctic ice sheet appears committed to practically irreversible melting, which would increase the sea levels by at least 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) over approximately 2000 years.

Nature and wildlife

Further information: Effects of climate change on oceans and Effects of climate change on biomes

Recent warming has driven many terrestrial and freshwater species poleward and towards higher altitudes. For instance, the range of hundreds of North American birds has shifted northward at an average rate of 1.5 km/year over the past 55 years. Higher atmospheric CO₂ levels and an extended growing season have resulted in global greening. However, heatwaves and drought have reduced ecosystem productivity in some regions. The future balance of these opposing effects is unclear. A related phenomenon driven by climate change is woody plant encroachment, affecting up to 500 million hectares globally. Climate change has contributed to the expansion of drier climate zones, such as the expansion of deserts in the subtropics. The size and speed of global warming is making abrupt changes in ecosystems more likely. Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species.

The oceans have heated more slowly than the land, but plants and animals in the ocean have migrated towards the colder poles faster than species on land. Just as on land, heat waves in the ocean occur more frequently due to climate change, harming a wide range of organisms such as corals, kelp, and seabirds. Ocean acidification makes it harder for marine calcifying organisms such as mussels, barnacles and corals to produce shells and skeletons; and heatwaves have bleached coral reefs. Harmful algal blooms enhanced by climate change and eutrophication lower oxygen levels, disrupt food webs and cause great loss of marine life. Coastal ecosystems are under particular stress. Almost half of global wetlands have disappeared due to climate change and other human impacts. Plants have come under increased stress from damage by insects.

Climate change impacts on the environment

Ecological collapse. Coral bleaching from thermal stress has damaged the Great Barrier Reef and threatens coral reefs worldwide. Extreme weather. Drought and high temperatures worsened the 2020 bushfires in Australia. Arctic warming. Permafrost thaws undermine infrastructure and release methane, a greenhouse gas. Habitat destruction. Many arctic animals rely on sea ice, which has been disappearing in a warming Arctic. Pest propagation. Mild winters allow more pine beetles to survive to kill large swaths of forest.

Humans

Main article: Effects of climate change

Extreme weather will be progressively more common as the Earth warms.

The effects of climate change are impacting humans everywhere in the world. Impacts can be observed on all continents and ocean regions, with low-latitude, less developed areas facing the greatest risk. Continued warming has potentially "severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts" for people and ecosystems. The risks are unevenly distributed, but are generally greater for disadvantaged people in developing and developed countries.

Health and food

Main articles: Effects of climate change on agriculture § Global food security and undernutrition, and Effects of climate change on human health

The World Health Organization calls climate change one of the biggest threats to global health in the 21st century. Scientists have warned about the irreversible harms it poses. Extreme weather events affect public health, and food and water security. Temperature extremes lead to increased illness and death. Climate change increases the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events. It can affect transmission of infectious diseases, such as dengue fever and malaria. According to the World Economic Forum, 14.5 million more deaths are expected due to climate change by 2050. 30% of the global population currently live in areas where extreme heat and humidity are already associated with excess deaths. By 2100, 50% to 75% of the global population would live in such areas.

While total crop yields have been increasing in the past 50 years due to agricultural improvements, climate change has already decreased the rate of yield growth. Fisheries have been negatively affected in multiple regions. While agricultural productivity has been positively affected in some high latitude areas, mid- and low-latitude areas have been negatively affected. According to the World Economic Forum, an increase in drought in certain regions could cause 3.2 million deaths from malnutrition by 2050 and stunting in children. With 2 °C warming, global livestock headcounts could decline by 7–10% by 2050, as less animal feed will be available. If the emissions continue to increase for the rest of century, then over 9 million climate-related deaths would occur annually by 2100.

Livelihoods and inequality

Further information: Economic analysis of climate change and Climate security

Economic damages due to climate change may be severe and there is a chance of disastrous consequences. Severe impacts are expected in South-East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, where most of the local inhabitants are dependent upon natural and agricultural resources. Heat stress can prevent outdoor labourers from working. If warming reaches 4 °C then labour capacity in those regions could be reduced by 30 to 50%. The World Bank estimates that between 2016 and 2030, climate change could drive over 120 million people into extreme poverty without adaptation.

Inequalities based on wealth and social status have worsened due to climate change. Major difficulties in mitigating, adapting to, and recovering from climate shocks are faced by marginalized people who have less control over resources. Indigenous people, who are subsistent on their land and ecosystems, will face endangerment to their wellness and lifestyles due to climate change. An expert elicitation concluded that the role of climate change in armed conflict has been small compared to factors such as socio-economic inequality and state capabilities.

While women are not inherently more at risk from climate change and shocks, limits on women's resources and discriminatory gender norms constrain their adaptive capacity and resilience. For example, women's work burdens, including hours worked in agriculture, tend to decline less than men's during climate shocks such as heat stress.

Climate migration

Main article: Climate migration

Low-lying islands and coastal communities are threatened by sea level rise, which makes urban flooding more common. Sometimes, land is permanently lost to the sea. This could lead to statelessness for people in island nations, such as the Maldives and Tuvalu. In some regions, the rise in temperature and humidity may be too severe for humans to adapt to. With worst-case climate change, models project that almost one-third of humanity might live in Sahara-like uninhabitable and extremely hot climates.

These factors can drive climate or environmental migration, within and between countries. More people are expected to be displaced because of sea level rise, extreme weather and conflict from increased competition over natural resources. Climate change may also increase vulnerability, leading to "trapped populations" who are not able to move due to a lack of resources.

Climate change impacts on people

Environmental migration. Sparser rainfall leads to desertification that harms agriculture and can displace populations. Shown: Telly, Mali (2008). Agricultural changes. Droughts, rising temperatures, and extreme weather negatively impact agriculture. Shown: Texas, US (2013). Tidal flooding. Sea-level rise increases flooding in low-lying coastal regions. Shown: Venice, Italy (2004). Storm intensification. Bangladesh after Cyclone Sidr (2007) is an example of catastrophic flooding from increased rainfall. Heat wave intensification. Events like the 2022 Southern Cone heat wave are becoming more common.

Reducing and recapturing emissions

Main article: Climate change mitigation

Global greenhouse gas emission scenarios, based on policies and pledges as of November 2021

Climate change can be mitigated by reducing the rate at which greenhouse gases are emitted into the atmosphere, and by increasing the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere. To limit global warming to less than 1.5 °C global greenhouse gas emissions needs to be net-zero by 2050, or by 2070 with a 2 °C target. This requires far-reaching, systemic changes on an unprecedented scale in energy, land, cities, transport, buildings, and industry.

The United Nations Environment Programme estimates that countries need to triple their pledges under the Paris Agreement within the next decade to limit global warming to 2 °C. An even greater level of reduction is required to meet the 1.5 °C goal. With pledges made under the Paris Agreement as of 2024, there would be a 66% chance that global warming is kept under 2.8 °C by the end of the century (range: 1.9–3.7 °C, depending on exact implementation and technological progress). When only considering current policies, this raises to 3.1 °C. Globally, limiting warming to 2 °C may result in higher economic benefits than economic costs.

Although there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 1.5 or 2 °C, most scenarios and strategies see a major increase in the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures to generate the needed greenhouse gas reductions. To reduce pressures on ecosystems and enhance their carbon sequestration capabilities, changes would also be necessary in agriculture and forestry, such as preventing deforestation and restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation.

Other approaches to mitigating climate change have a higher level of risk. Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century. There are concerns, though, about over-reliance on these technologies, and environmental impacts. Solar radiation modification (SRM) is also a possible supplement to deep reductions in emissions. However, SRM raises significant ethical and legal concerns, and the risks are imperfectly understood.

Clean energy

Main articles: Sustainable energy and Sustainable transport

Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing.

Wind and solar power, Germany

Renewable energy is key to limiting climate change. For decades, fossil fuels have accounted for roughly 80% of the world's energy use. The remaining share has been split between nuclear power and renewables (including hydropower, bioenergy, wind and solar power and geothermal energy). Fossil fuel use is expected to peak in absolute terms prior to 2030 and then to decline, with coal use experiencing the sharpest reductions. Renewables represented 86% of all new electricity generation installed in 2023. Other forms of clean energy, such as nuclear and hydropower, currently have a larger share of the energy supply. However, their future growth forecasts appear limited in comparison.

While solar panels and onshore wind are now among the cheapest forms of adding new power generation capacity in many locations, green energy policies are needed to achieve a rapid transition from fossil fuels to renewables. To achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, renewable energy would become the dominant form of electricity generation, rising to 85% or more by 2050 in some scenarios. Investment in coal would be eliminated and coal use nearly phased out by 2050.

Electricity generated from renewable sources would also need to become the main energy source for heating and transport. Transport can switch away from internal combustion engine vehicles and towards electric vehicles, public transit, and active transport (cycling and walking). For shipping and flying, low-carbon fuels would reduce emissions. Heating could be increasingly decarbonized with technologies like heat pumps.

There are obstacles to the continued rapid growth of clean energy, including renewables. Wind and solar produce energy intermittently and with seasonal variability. Traditionally, hydro dams with reservoirs and fossil fuel power plants have been used when variable energy production is low. Going forward, battery storage can be expanded, energy demand and supply can be matched, and long-distance transmission can smooth variability of renewable outputs. Bioenergy is often not carbon-neutral and may have negative consequences for food security. The growth of nuclear power is constrained by controversy around radioactive waste, nuclear weapon proliferation, and accidents. Hydropower growth is limited by the fact that the best sites have been developed, and new projects are confronting increased social and environmental concerns.

Low-carbon energy improves human health by minimizing climate change as well as reducing air pollution deaths, which were estimated at 7 million annually in 2016. Meeting the Paris Agreement goals that limit warming to a 2 °C increase could save about a million of those lives per year by 2050, whereas limiting global warming to 1.5 °C could save millions and simultaneously increase energy security and reduce poverty. Improving air quality also has economic benefits which may be larger than mitigation costs.

Energy conservation

Main articles: Efficient energy use and Energy conservation

Reducing energy demand is another major aspect of reducing emissions. If less energy is needed, there is more flexibility for clean energy development. It also makes it easier to manage the electricity grid, and minimizes carbon-intensive infrastructure development. Major increases in energy efficiency investment will be required to achieve climate goals, comparable to the level of investment in renewable energy. Several COVID-19 related changes in energy use patterns, energy efficiency investments, and funding have made forecasts for this decade more difficult and uncertain.

Strategies to reduce energy demand vary by sector. In the transport sector, passengers and freight can switch to more efficient travel modes, such as buses and trains, or use electric vehicles. Industrial strategies to reduce energy demand include improving heating systems and motors, designing less energy-intensive products, and increasing product lifetimes. In the building sector the focus is on better design of new buildings, and higher levels of energy efficiency in retrofitting. The use of technologies like heat pumps can also increase building energy efficiency.

Agriculture and industry

See also: Sustainable agriculture and Green industrial policy

Taking into account direct and indirect emissions, industry is the sector with the highest share of global emissions. Data as of 2019 from the IPCC.

Agriculture and forestry face a triple challenge of limiting greenhouse gas emissions, preventing the further conversion of forests to agricultural land, and meeting increases in world food demand. A set of actions could reduce agriculture and forestry-based emissions by two-thirds from 2010 levels. These include reducing growth in demand for food and other agricultural products, increasing land productivity, protecting and restoring forests, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural production.

On the demand side, a key component of reducing emissions is shifting people towards plant-based diets. Eliminating the production of livestock for meat and dairy would eliminate about 3/4ths of all emissions from agriculture and other land use. Livestock also occupy 37% of ice-free land area on Earth and consume feed from the 12% of land area used for crops, driving deforestation and land degradation.

Steel and cement production are responsible for about 13% of industrial CO₂ emissions. In these industries, carbon-intensive materials such as coke and lime play an integral role in the production, so that reducing CO₂ emissions requires research into alternative chemistries. Where energy production or CO₂-intensive heavy industries continue to produce waste CO₂, technology can sometimes be used to capture and store most of the gas instead of releasing it to the atmosphere. This technology, carbon capture and storage (CCS), could have a critical but limited role in reducing emissions. It is relatively expensive and has been deployed only to an extent that removes around 0.1% of annual greenhouse gas emissions.

Carbon dioxide removal

Main articles: Carbon dioxide removal and Carbon sequestration

Most CO₂ emissions have been absorbed by carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake (2020 Global Carbon Budget).

Natural carbon sinks can be enhanced to sequester significantly larger amounts of CO₂ beyond naturally occurring levels. Reforestation and afforestation (planting forests where there were none before) are among the most mature sequestration techniques, although the latter raises food security concerns. Farmers can promote sequestration of carbon in soils through practices such as use of winter cover crops, reducing the intensity and frequency of tillage, and using compost and manure as soil amendments. Forest and landscape restoration yields many benefits for the climate, including greenhouse gas emissions sequestration and reduction. Restoration/recreation of coastal wetlands, prairie plots and seagrass meadows increases the uptake of carbon into organic matter. When carbon is sequestered in soils and in organic matter such as trees, there is a risk of the carbon being re-released into the atmosphere later through changes in land use, fire, or other changes in ecosystems.

The use of bioenergy in conjunction with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) can result in net negative emissions as CO₂ is drawn from the atmosphere. It remains highly uncertain whether carbon dioxide removal techniques will be able to play a large role in limiting warming to 1.5 °C. Policy decisions that rely on carbon dioxide removal increase the risk of global warming rising beyond international goals.

Adaptation

Main article: Climate change adaptation

Adaptation is "the process of adjustment to current or expected changes in climate and its effects". Without additional mitigation, adaptation cannot avert the risk of "severe, widespread and irreversible" impacts. More severe climate change requires more transformative adaptation, which can be prohibitively expensive. The capacity and potential for humans to adapt is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations, and developing countries generally have less. The first two decades of the 21st century saw an increase in adaptive capacity in most low- and middle-income countries with improved access to basic sanitation and electricity, but progress is slow. Many countries have implemented adaptation policies. However, there is a considerable gap between necessary and available finance.

Adaptation to sea level rise consists of avoiding at-risk areas, learning to live with increased flooding, and building flood controls. If that fails, managed retreat may be needed. There are economic barriers for tackling dangerous heat impact. Avoiding strenuous work or having air conditioning is not possible for everybody. In agriculture, adaptation options include a switch to more sustainable diets, diversification, erosion control, and genetic improvements for increased tolerance to a changing climate. Insurance allows for risk-sharing, but is often difficult to get for people on lower incomes. Education, migration and early warning systems can reduce climate vulnerability. Planting mangroves or encouraging other coastal vegetation can buffer storms.

Ecosystems adapt to climate change, a process that can be supported by human intervention. By increasing connectivity between ecosystems, species can migrate to more favourable climate conditions. Species can also be introduced to areas acquiring a favourable climate. Protection and restoration of natural and semi-natural areas helps build resilience, making it easier for ecosystems to adapt. Many of the actions that promote adaptation in ecosystems, also help humans adapt via ecosystem-based adaptation. For instance, restoration of natural fire regimes makes catastrophic fires less likely, and reduces human exposure. Giving rivers more space allows for more water storage in the natural system, reducing flood risk. Restored forest acts as a carbon sink, but planting trees in unsuitable regions can exacerbate climate impacts.

There are synergies but also trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation. An example for synergy is increased food productivity, which has large benefits for both adaptation and mitigation. An example of a trade-off is that increased use of air conditioning allows people to better cope with heat, but increases energy demand. Another trade-off example is that more compact urban development may reduce emissions from transport and construction, but may also increase the urban heat island effect, exposing people to heat-related health risks.

Examples of adaptation methods

Mangrove planting and other habitat conservation can reduce coastal flooding. Seawalls to protect against storm surge worsened by sea level rise Green roofs to provide cooling in cities Selective breeding for drought-resistant crops

Policies and politics

See also: Politics of climate change and Climate change mitigation § Policies

The Climate Change Performance Index ranks countries by greenhouse gas emissions (40% of score), renewable energy (20%), energy use (20%), and climate policy (20%).

High

Medium

Low

Very low

Countries that are most vulnerable to climate change have typically been responsible for a small share of global emissions. This raises questions about justice and fairness. Limiting global warming makes it much easier to achieve the UN's Sustainable Development Goals, such as eradicating poverty and reducing inequalities. The connection is recognized in Sustainable Development Goal 13 which is to "take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts". The goals on food, clean water and ecosystem protection have synergies with climate mitigation.

The geopolitics of climate change is complex. It has often been framed as a free-rider problem, in which all countries benefit from mitigation done by other countries, but individual countries would lose from switching to a low-carbon economy themselves. Sometimes mitigation also has localized benefits though. For instance, the benefits of a coal phase-out to public health and local environments exceed the costs in almost all regions. Furthermore, net importers of fossil fuels win economically from switching to clean energy, causing net exporters to face stranded assets: fossil fuels they cannot sell.

Policy options

Further information: Climate policy

A wide range of policies, regulations, and laws are being used to reduce emissions. As of 2019, carbon pricing covers about 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon can be priced with carbon taxes and emissions trading systems. Direct global fossil fuel subsidies reached $319 billion in 2017, and $5.2 trillion when indirect costs such as air pollution are priced in. Ending these can cause a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a 46% reduction in air pollution deaths. Money saved on fossil subsidies could be used to support the transition to clean energy instead. More direct methods to reduce greenhouse gases include vehicle efficiency standards, renewable fuel standards, and air pollution regulations on heavy industry. Several countries require utilities to increase the share of renewables in power production.

Climate justice

Policy designed through the lens of climate justice tries to address human rights issues and social inequality. According to proponents of climate justice, the costs of climate adaptation should be paid by those most responsible for climate change, while the beneficiaries of payments should be those suffering impacts. One way this can be addressed in practice is to have wealthy nations pay poorer countries to adapt.

Oxfam found that in 2023 the wealthiest 10% of people were responsible for 50% of global emissions, while the bottom 50% were responsible for just 8%. Production of emissions is another way to look at responsibility: under that approach, the top 21 fossil fuel companies would owe cumulative climate reparations of $5.4 trillion over the period 2025–2050. To achieve a just transition, people working in the fossil fuel sector would also need other jobs, and their communities would need investments.

International climate agreements

Further information: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Since 2000, rising CO₂ emissions in China and the rest of world have surpassed the output of the United States and Europe.

Per person, the United States generates CO₂ at a far faster rate than other primary regions.

Nearly all countries in the world are parties to the 1994 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The goal of the UNFCCC is to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. As stated in the convention, this requires that greenhouse gas concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can be sustained. The UNFCCC does not itself restrict emissions but rather provides a framework for protocols that do. Global emissions have risen since the UNFCCC was signed. Its yearly conferences are the stage of global negotiations.

The 1997 Kyoto Protocol extended the UNFCCC and included legally binding commitments for most developed countries to limit their emissions. During the negotiations, the G77 (representing developing countries) pushed for a mandate requiring developed countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing their emissions, since developed countries contributed most to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Per-capita emissions were also still relatively low in developing countries and developing countries would need to emit more to meet their development needs.

The 2009 Copenhagen Accord has been widely portrayed as disappointing because of its low goals, and was rejected by poorer nations including the G77. Associated parties aimed to limit the global temperature rise to below 2 °C. The Accord set the goal of sending $100 billion per year to developing countries for mitigation and adaptation by 2020, and proposed the founding of the Green Climate Fund. As of 2020, only 83.3 billion were delivered. Only in 2023 the target is expected to be achieved.

In 2015 all UN countries negotiated the Paris Agreement, which aims to keep global warming well below 2.0 °C and contains an aspirational goal of keeping warming under 1.5 °C. The agreement replaced the Kyoto Protocol. Unlike Kyoto, no binding emission targets were set in the Paris Agreement. Instead, a set of procedures was made binding. Countries have to regularly set ever more ambitious goals and reevaluate these goals every five years. The Paris Agreement restated that developing countries must be financially supported. As of October 2021, 194 states and the European Union have signed the treaty and 191 states and the EU have ratified or acceded to the agreement.

The 1987 Montreal Protocol, an international agreement to phase out production of ozone-depleting gases, has had benefits for climate change mitigation. Several ozone-depleting gases like chlorofluorocarbons are powerful greenhouse gases, so banning their production and usage may have avoided a temperature rise of 0.5 °C–1.0 °C, as well as additional warming by preventing damage to vegetation from ultraviolet radiation. It is estimated that the agreement has been more effective at curbing greenhouse gas emissions than the Kyoto Protocol specifically designed to do so. The most recent amendment to the Montreal Protocol, the 2016 Kigali Amendment, committed to reducing the emissions of hydrofluorocarbons, which served as a replacement for banned ozone-depleting gases and are also potent greenhouse gases. Should countries comply with the amendment, a warming of 0.3 °C–0.5 °C is estimated to be avoided.

National responses

Annual CO₂ emissions by region. This measures fossil fuel and industry emissions. Land use change is not included.

In 2019, the United Kingdom parliament became the first national government to declare a climate emergency. Other countries and jurisdictions followed suit. That same year, the European Parliament declared a "climate and environmental emergency". The European Commission presented its European Green Deal with the goal of making the EU carbon-neutral by 2050. In 2021, the European Commission released its "Fit for 55" legislation package, which contains guidelines for the car industry; all new cars on the European market must be zero-emission vehicles from 2035.

Major countries in Asia have made similar pledges: South Korea and Japan have committed to become carbon-neutral by 2050, and China by 2060. While India has strong incentives for renewables, it also plans a significant expansion of coal in the country. Vietnam is among very few coal-dependent, fast-developing countries that pledged to phase out unabated coal power by the 2040s or as soon as possible thereafter.

As of 2021, based on information from 48 national climate plans, which represent 40% of the parties to the Paris Agreement, estimated total greenhouse gas emissions will be 0.5% lower compared to 2010 levels, below the 45% or 25% reduction goals to limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C, respectively.

Society

Denial and misinformation

Further information: Climate change denial and Fossil fuels lobby

Data has been cherry picked from short periods to falsely assert that global temperatures are not rising. Blue trendlines show short periods that mask longer-term warming trends (red trendlines). Blue rectangle with blue dots shows the so-called global warming hiatus.

Public debate about climate change has been strongly affected by climate change denial and misinformation, which originated in the United States and has since spread to other countries, particularly Canada and Australia. Climate change denial has originated from fossil fuel companies, industry groups, conservative think tanks, and contrarian scientists. Like the tobacco industry, the main strategy of these groups has been to manufacture doubt about climate-change related scientific data and results. People who hold unwarranted doubt about climate change are called climate change "skeptics", although "contrarians" or "deniers" are more appropriate terms.

There are different variants of climate denial: some deny that warming takes place at all, some acknowledge warming but attribute it to natural influences, and some minimize the negative impacts of climate change. Manufacturing uncertainty about the science later developed into a manufactured controversy: creating the belief that there is significant uncertainty about climate change within the scientific community to delay policy changes. Strategies to promote these ideas include criticism of scientific institutions, and questioning the motives of individual scientists. An echo chamber of climate-denying blogs and media has further fomented misunderstanding of climate change.

Public awareness and opinion

Further information: Climate communication, Media coverage of climate change, and Public opinion on climate change

The public substantially underestimates the degree of scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change. Studies from 2019 to 2021 found scientific consensus to range from 98.7 to 100%.

Climate change came to international public attention in the late 1980s. Due to media coverage in the early 1990s, people often confused climate change with other environmental issues like ozone depletion. In popular culture, the climate fiction movie The Day After Tomorrow (2004) and the Al Gore documentary An Inconvenient Truth (2006) focused on climate change.

Significant regional, gender, age and political differences exist in both public concern for, and understanding of, climate change. More highly educated people, and in some countries, women and younger people, were more likely to see climate change as a serious threat. College biology textbooks from the 2010s featured less content on climate change compared to those from the preceding decade, with decreasing emphasis on solutions. Partisan gaps also exist in many countries, and countries with high CO₂ emissions tend to be less concerned. Views on causes of climate change vary widely between countries. Concern has increased over time, and a majority of citizens in many countries now express a high level of worry about climate change, or view it as a global emergency. Higher levels of worry are associated with stronger public support for policies that address climate change.

Climate movement

Main articles: Climate movement and Climate change litigation

Climate protests demand that political leaders take action to prevent climate change. They can take the form of public demonstrations, fossil fuel divestment, lawsuits and other activities. Prominent demonstrations include the School Strike for Climate. In this initiative, young people across the globe have been protesting since 2018 by skipping school on Fridays, inspired by Swedish teenager Greta Thunberg. Mass civil disobedience actions by groups like Extinction Rebellion have protested by disrupting roads and public transport.

Litigation is increasingly used as a tool to strengthen climate action from public institutions and companies. Activists also initiate lawsuits which target governments and demand that they take ambitious action or enforce existing laws on climate change. Lawsuits against fossil-fuel companies generally seek compensation for loss and damage.

History

For broader coverage of this topic, see History of climate change science.

Early discoveries

This 1912 article succinctly describes the greenhouse effect, how burning coal creates carbon dioxide to cause global warming and climate change.

Scientists in the 19th century such as Alexander von Humboldt began to foresee the effects of climate change. In the 1820s, Joseph Fourier proposed the greenhouse effect to explain why Earth's temperature was higher than the Sun's energy alone could explain. Earth's atmosphere is transparent to sunlight, so sunlight reaches the surface where it is converted to heat. However, the atmosphere is not transparent to heat radiating from the surface, and captures some of that heat, which in turn warms the planet.

In 1856 Eunice Newton Foote demonstrated that the warming effect of the Sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and that the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide (CO₂). She concluded that "An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature..."

Studying what would become known as the greenhouse effect, Tyndall's pre-1861 ratio spectrophotometer measured how much various gases in a tube absorb and emit infrared radiation—which humans experience as heat.

Starting in 1859, John Tyndall established that nitrogen and oxygen—together totalling 99% of dry air—are transparent to radiated heat. However, water vapour and gases such as methane and carbon dioxide absorb radiated heat and re-radiate that heat into the atmosphere. Tyndall proposed that changes in the concentrations of these gases may have caused climatic changes in the past, including ice ages.

Svante Arrhenius noted that water vapour in air continuously varied, but the CO₂ concentration in air was influenced by long-term geological processes. Warming from increased CO₂ levels would increase the amount of water vapour, amplifying warming in a positive feedback loop. In 1896, he published the first climate model of its kind, projecting that halving CO₂ levels could have produced a drop in temperature initiating an ice age. Arrhenius calculated the temperature increase expected from doubling CO₂ to be around 5–6 °C. Other scientists were initially sceptical and believed that the greenhouse effect was saturated so that adding more CO₂ would make no difference, and that the climate would be self-regulating. Beginning in 1938, Guy Stewart Callendar published evidence that climate was warming and CO₂ levels were rising, but his calculations met the same objections.

Development of a scientific consensus

See also: Scientific consensus on climate change

Scientific consensus on causation: Academic studies of scientific agreement on human-caused global warming among climate experts (2010–2015) reflect that the level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science. A 2019 study found scientific consensus to be at 100%, and a 2021 study concluded that consensus exceeded 99%. Another 2021 study found that 98.7% of climate experts indicated that the Earth is getting warmer mostly because of human activity.

In the 1950s, Gilbert Plass created a detailed computer model that included different atmospheric layers and the infrared spectrum. This model predicted that increasing CO₂ levels would cause warming. Around the same time, Hans Suess found evidence that CO₂ levels had been rising, and Roger Revelle showed that the oceans would not absorb the increase. The two scientists subsequently helped Charles Keeling to begin a record of continued increase, which has been termed the "Keeling Curve". Scientists alerted the public, and the dangers were highlighted at James Hansen's 1988 Congressional testimony. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), set up in 1988 to provide formal advice to the world's governments, spurred interdisciplinary research. As part of the IPCC reports, scientists assess the scientific discussion that takes place in peer-reviewed journal articles.

There is a near-complete scientific consensus that the climate is warming and that this is caused by human activities. As of 2019, agreement in recent literature reached over 99%. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view. Consensus has further developed that some form of action should be taken to protect people against the impacts of climate change. National science academies have called on world leaders to cut global emissions. The 2021 IPCC Assessment Report stated that it is "unequivocal" that climate change is caused by humans.

See also

• Climate change portal
• Anthropocene – proposed geological time interval in which humans are having significant geological impact
• List of climate scientists
• Charney Report

References

Sources

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0. Text taken from The status of women in agrifood systems – Overview​, FAO, FAO.

IPCC reports

Fourth Assessment Report

• IPCC (2007). Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, Z.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1.
  • Le Treut, H.; Somerville, R.; Cubasch, U.; Ding, Y.; et al. (2007). "Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Climate Change Science" (PDF). IPCC AR4 WG1 2007. pp. 93–127.
  • Randall, D. A.; Wood, R. A.; Bony, S.; Colman, R.; et al. (2007). "Chapter 8: Climate Models and their Evaluation" (PDF). IPCC AR4 WG1 2007. pp. 589–662.
  • Hegerl, G. C.; Zwiers, F. W.; Braconnot, P.; Gillett, N. P.; et al. (2007). "Chapter 9: Understanding and Attributing Climate Change" (PDF). IPCC AR4 WG1 2007. pp. 663–745.

• IPCC (2007). Parry, M. L.; Canziani, O. F.; Palutikof, J. P.; van der Linden, P. J.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7.
  • Schneider, S. H.; Semenov, S.; Patwardhan, A.; Burton, I.; et al. (2007). "Chapter 19: Assessing key vulnerabilities and the risk from climate change" (PDF). IPCC AR4 WG2 2007. pp. 779–810.

• IPCC (2007). Metz, B.; Davidson, O. R.; Bosch, P. R.; Dave, R.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4.
  • Rogner, H.-H.; Zhou, D.; Bradley, R.; Crabbé, P.; et al. (2007). "Chapter 1: Introduction" (PDF). IPCC AR4 WG3 2007. pp. 95–116.

Fifth Assessment report

• IPCC (2013). Stocker, T. F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K.; Tignor, M.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis (PDF). Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05799-9.. AR5 Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis – IPCC
  • IPCC (2013). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG1 2013.
  • Hartmann, D. L.; Klein Tank, A. M. G.; Rusticucci, M.; Alexander, L. V.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 2: Observations: Atmosphere and Surface" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 159–254.
  • Rhein, M.; Rintoul, S. R.; Aoki, S.; Campos, E.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 3: Observations: Ocean" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 255–315.
  • Masson-Delmotte, V.; Schulz, M.; Abe-Ouchi, A.; Beer, J.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 5: Information from Paleoclimate Archives" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 383–464.
  • Bindoff, N. L.; Stott, P. A.; AchutaRao, K. M.; Allen, M. R.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 10: Detection and Attribution of Climate Change: from Global to Regional" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 867–952.
  • Collins, M.; Knutti, R.; Arblaster, J. M.; Dufresne, J.-L.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 12: Long-term Climate Change: Projections, Commitments and Irreversibility" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 1029–1136.

• IPCC (2014). Field, C. B.; Barros, V. R.; Dokken, D. J.; Mach, K. J.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05807-1.. Chapters 1–20, SPM, and Technical Summary.
  • Olsson, L.; Opondo, M.; Tschakert, P.; Agrawal, A.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 13: Livelihoods and Poverty" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. pp. 793–832.
  • Cramer, W.; Yohe, G. W.; Auffhammer, M.; Huggel, C.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 18: Detection and Attribution of Observed Impacts" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. pp. 979–1037.
  • Oppenheimer, M.; Campos, M.; Warren, R.; Birkmann, J.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 19: Emergent Risks and Key Vulnerabilities" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. pp. 1039–1099.
• IPCC (2014). Barros, V. R.; Field, C. B.; Dokken, D. J.; Mach, K. J.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects (PDF). Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05816-3.. Chapters 21–30, Annexes, and Index.
  • Larsen, J. N.; Anisimov, O. A.; Constable, A.; Hollowed, A. B.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 28: Polar Regions" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 B 2014. pp. 1567–1612.

• IPCC (2014). Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Farahani, E.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05821-7.
  • Lucon, O.; Ürge-Vorsatz, D.; Ahmed, A.; Akbari, H.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 9: Buildings" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG3 2014.
  • Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Farahani, E.; et al. (2014). "Annex III: Technology-specific Cost and Performance Parameters" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG3 2014. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press.
• IPCC AR5 SYR (2014). The Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R. K.; Meyer, L. A. (eds.). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • IPCC (2014). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC AR5 SYR 2014.
  • IPCC (2014). "Annex II: Glossary" (PDF). IPCC AR5 SYR 2014.

Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5 °C

• IPCC (2018). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.; et al. (eds.). Global Warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Global Warming of 1.5 °C –.
  • IPCC (2018). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 3–24.
  • Allen, M. R.; Dube, O. P.; Solecki, W.; Aragón-Durand, F.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 1: Framing and Context" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 49–91.
  • Rogelj, J.; Shindell, D.; Jiang, K.; Fifta, S.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 2: Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5 °C in the Context of Sustainable Development" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 93–174.
  • Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Jacob, D.; Taylor, M.; Bindi, M.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5 °C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 175–311.
  • de Coninck, H.; Revi, A.; Babiker, M.; Bertoldi, P.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 4: Strengthening and Implementing the Global Response" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 313–443.
  • Roy, J.; Tschakert, P.; Waisman, H.; Abdul Halim, S.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 5: Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 445–538.

Special Report: Climate change and Land

• IPCC (2019). Shukla, P. R.; Skea, J.; Calvo Buendia, E.; Masson-Delmotte, V.; et al. (eds.). IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems (PDF). In press.
  • IPCC (2019). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC SRCCL 2019. pp. 3–34.
  • Jia, G.; Shevliakova, E.; Artaxo, P. E.; De Noblet-Ducoudré, N.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 2: Land-Climate Interactions" (PDF). IPCC SRCCL 2019. pp. 131–247.
  • Mbow, C.; Rosenzweig, C.; Barioni, L. G.; Benton, T.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Food Security" (PDF). IPCC SRCCL 2019. pp. 437–550.

Special Report: The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

• IPCC (2019). Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D. C.; Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; et al. (eds.). IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (PDF). In press.
  • IPCC (2019). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC SROCC 2019. pp. 3–35.
  • Oppenheimer, M.; Glavovic, B.; Hinkel, J.; van de Wal, R.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 4: Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low Lying Islands, Coasts and Communities" (PDF). IPCC SROCC 2019. pp. 321–445.
  • Bindoff, N. L.; Cheung, W. W. L.; Kairo, J. G.; Arístegui, J.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities" (PDF). IPCC SROCC 2019. pp. 447–587.

Sixth Assessment Report

• IPCC (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis (PDF). Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press (In Press).
  • IPCC (2021). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG1 2021.
  • Arias, Paola A.; Bellouin, Nicolas; Coppola, Erika; Jones, Richard G.; et al. (2021). "Technical Summary" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG1 2021.
  • Gulev, Sergey K.; Thorne, Peter W.; Ahn, Jinho; Dentener, Frank J.; et al. (2021). "Chapter 2: Changing state of the climate system" (PDF). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
  • Seneviratne, Sonia I.; Zhang, Xuebin; Adnan, M.; Badi, W.; et al. (2021). "Chapter 11: Weather and climate extreme events in a changing climate" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG1 2021.
• IPCC (2022). Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.C.; Tignor, M.; Poloczanska, E.S.; Mintenbeck, K.; Alegría, A.; Craig, M.; Langsdorf, S.; Löschke, S.; Möller, V.; Okem, A.; Rama, B. (eds.). Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009325844. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4.
  • IPCC (2022). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 3–33. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4.
  • IPCC (2022). "Technical Summary" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 37–118. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.002. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4.
  • Bezner Kerr, R.; Hasegawa, T.; Lasco, R.; Bhatt, I.; Deryng, D.; Farrell, A.; Gurney-Smith, H.; Ju, H.; Lluch-Cota, S.; Meza, F.; Nelson, G.; Neufeldt, H.; Thornton, P. (2022). "Food, Fibre and Other Ecosystem Products" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 713–906. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.007. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4.
  • Dodman, D.; Hayward, B.; Pelling, M.; Castan Broto, V.; Chow, W.; Chu, E.; Dawson, R.; Khirfan, L.; McPhearson, T.; Prakash, A.; Zheng, Y.; Ziervogel, G. (2022). "Cities, Settlements and Key Infrastructure" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 907–1040. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.008. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4.
  • O'Neill, B.; van Aalst, M.; Zaiton Ibrahim, Z.; Berrang Ford, L.; Bhadwal, S.; Buhaug, H.; Diaz, D.; Frieler, K.; Garschagen, M.; Magnan, A.; Midgley, G.; Mirzabaev, A.; Thomas, A.; Warren, R. (2022). "Key Risks across Sectors and Regions" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 2411–2538. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.025. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4.
• IPCC (2022). Shukla, P.R.; Skea, J.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009157926. ISBN 978-1-009-15792-6.
  • IPCC (2022). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG3 2022.
  • Pathak, M.; Slade, R.; Shukla, P.R.; Skea, J.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Ürge-Vorsatz, D. (2022). "Technical Summary" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG3 2022. pp. 51–148. doi:10.1017/9781009157926.002. ISBN 978-1-009-15792-6.
  • Riahi, K.; Schaeffer, R.; Arango, J.; Calvin, K.; Guivarch, C.; Hasegawa, T.; Jiang, K.; Kriegler, E.; Matthews, R.; Peters, G.P.; Rao, A.; Robertson, S.; Sebbit, A.M.; Steinberger, J.; Tavoni, M.; van Vuuren, D.P. (2022). "Mitigation Pathways Compatible with Long-term Goals" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG3 2022. pp. 295–408. doi:10.1017/9781009157926.005. ISBN 978-1-009-15792-6.
• IPCC (2023). Core Writing Team; Lee, H.; Romero, J.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (PDF). Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647. hdl:1885/299630. ISBN 978-92-9169-164-7. S2CID 260074696.
  • IPCC (2023). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC AR6 SYR 2023.

Other peer-reviewed sources

• Albrecht, Bruce A. (1989). "Aerosols, Cloud Microphysics, and Fractional Cloudiness". Science. 245 (4923): 1227–1239. Bibcode:1989Sci...245.1227A. doi:10.1126/science.245.4923.1227. PMID 17747885. S2CID 46152332.
• Balsari, S.; Dresser, C.; Leaning, J. (2020). "Climate Change, Migration, and Civil Strife". Curr Environ Health Report. 7 (4): 404–414. Bibcode:2020CEHR....7..404B. doi:10.1007/s40572-020-00291-4. PMC 7550406. PMID 33048318.
• Bamber, Jonathan L.; Oppenheimer, Michael; Kopp, Robert E.; Aspinall, Willy P.; Cooke, Roger M. (2019). "Ice sheet contributions to future sea-level rise from structured expert judgment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (23): 11195–11200. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11611195B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1817205116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6561295. PMID 31110015.
• Bednar, Johannes; Obersteiner, Michael; Wagner, Fabian (2019). "On the financial viability of negative emissions". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 1783. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1783B. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09782-x. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6467865. PMID 30992434.
• Berrill, P.; Arvesen, A.; Scholz, Y.; Gils, H. C.; et al. (2016). "Environmental impacts of high penetration renewable energy scenarios for Europe". Environmental Research Letters. 11 (1): 014012. Bibcode:2016ERL....11a4012B. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/1/014012. hdl:11250/2465014.
• Björnberg, Karin Edvardsson; Karlsson, Mikael; Gilek, Michael; Hansson, Sven Ove (2017). "Climate and environmental science denial: A review of the scientific literature published in 1990–2015". Journal of Cleaner Production. 167: 229–241. Bibcode:2017JCPro.167..229B. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.066. ISSN 0959-6526.
• Boulianne, Shelley; Lalancette, Mireille; Ilkiw, David (2020). ""School Strike 4 Climate": Social Media and the International Youth Protest on Climate Change". Media and Communication. 8 (2): 208–218. doi:10.17645/mac.v8i2.2768. ISSN 2183-2439.
• Bui, M.; Adjiman, C.; Bardow, A.; Anthony, Edward J.; et al. (2018). "Carbon capture and storage (CCS): the way forward". Energy & Environmental Science. 11 (5): 1062–1176. doi:10.1039/c7ee02342a. hdl:10044/1/55714.
• Burke, Claire; Stott, Peter (2017). "Impact of Anthropogenic Climate Change on the East Asian Summer Monsoon". Journal of Climate. 30 (14): 5205–5220. arXiv:1704.00563. Bibcode:2017JCli...30.5205B. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0892.1. ISSN 0894-8755. S2CID 59509210.
• Callendar, G. S. (1938). "The artificial production of carbon dioxide and its influence on temperature". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 64 (275): 223–240. Bibcode:1938QJRMS..64..223C. doi:10.1002/qj.49706427503.
• Cattaneo, Cristina; Beine, Michel; Fröhlich, Christiane J.; Kniveton, Dominic; et al. (2019). "Human Migration in the Era of Climate Change". Review of Environmental Economics and Policy. 13 (2): 189–206. doi:10.1093/reep/rez008. hdl:10.1093/reep/rez008. ISSN 1750-6816. S2CID 198660593.
• Cohen, Judah; Screen, James; Furtado, Jason C.; Barlow, Mathew; et al. (2014). "Recent Arctic amplification and extreme mid-latitude weather" (PDF). Nature Geoscience. 7 (9): 627–637. Bibcode:2014NatGe...7..627C. doi:10.1038/ngeo2234. ISSN 1752-0908.
• Curtis, P.; Slay, C.; Harris, N.; Tyukavina, A.; et al. (2018). "Classifying drivers of global forest loss". Science. 361 (6407): 1108–1111. Bibcode:2018Sci...361.1108C. doi:10.1126/science.aau3445. PMID 30213911. S2CID 52273353.
• Davidson, Eric (2009). "The contribution of manure and fertilizer nitrogen to atmospheric nitrous oxide since 1860". Nature Geoscience. 2: 659–662. doi:10.1016/j.chemer.2016.04.002.
• DeConto, Robert M.; Pollard, David (2016). "Contribution of Antarctica to past and future sea-level rise". Nature. 531 (7596): 591–597. Bibcode:2016Natur.531..591D. doi:10.1038/nature17145. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 27029274. S2CID 205247890.
• Deutsch, Curtis; Brix, Holger; Ito, Taka; Frenzel, Hartmut; et al. (2011). "Climate-Forced Variability of Ocean Hypoxia" (PDF). Science. 333 (6040): 336–339. Bibcode:2011Sci...333..336D. doi:10.1126/science.1202422. PMID 21659566. S2CID 11752699. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 May 2016.
• Doney, Scott C.; Fabry, Victoria J.; Feely, Richard A.; Kleypas, Joan A. (2009). "Ocean Acidification: The Other CO₂ Problem". Annual Review of Marine Science. 1 (1): 169–192. Bibcode:2009ARMS....1..169D. doi:10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163834. PMID 21141034. S2CID 402398.
• Fahey, D. W.; Doherty, S. J.; Hibbard, K. A.; Romanou, A.; Taylor, P. C. (2017). "Chapter 2: Physical Drivers of Climate Change" (PDF). In USGCRP2017.
• Fischer, Tobias P.; Aiuppa, Alessandro (2020). "AGU Centennial Grand Challenge: Volcanoes and Deep Carbon Global CO2 Emissions From Subaerial Volcanism – Recent Progress and Future Challenges". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 21 (3): e08690. Bibcode:2020GGG....2108690F. doi:10.1029/2019GC008690. hdl:10447/498846. ISSN 1525-2027.
• Friedlingstein, Pierre; Jones, Matthew W.; O'Sullivan, Michael; Andrew, Robbie M.; et al. (2019). "Global Carbon Budget 2019". Earth System Science Data. 11 (4): 1783–1838. Bibcode:2019ESSD...11.1783F. doi:10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019. hdl:10871/39943. ISSN 1866-3508.
• Forster, P. M.; Smith, C. J.; Walsh, T.; Lamb, W. F.; et al. (2024). "Indicators of Global Climate Change 2023: annual update of large-scale indicators of the state of the climate system and human influence" (PDF). Earth System Science Data. 16 (6): 2625–2658. Bibcode:2023ESSD...15.2295F. doi:10.5194/essd-16-2625-2024. Retrieved 1 November 2024.
• Goyal, Rishav; England, Matthew H.; Sen Gupta, Alex; Jucker, Martin (2019). "Reduction in surface climate change achieved by the 1987 Montreal Protocol". Environmental Research Letters. 14 (12): 124041. Bibcode:2019ERL....14l4041G. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab4874. hdl:1959.4/unsworks_66865. ISSN 1748-9326.
• Grubb, M. (2003). "The Economics of the Kyoto Protocol" (PDF). World Economics. 4 (3): 144–145. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2012.
• Gunningham, Neil (2018). "Mobilising civil society: can the climate movement achieve transformational social change?" (PDF). Interface: A Journal for and About Social Movements. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
• Hagmann, David; Ho, Emily H.; Loewenstein, George (2019). "Nudging out support for a carbon tax". Nature Climate Change. 9 (6): 484–489. Bibcode:2019NatCC...9..484H. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0474-0. S2CID 182663891.
• Hansen, James; Sato, Makiko; Hearty, Paul; Ruedy, Reto; et al. (2016). "Ice melt, sea level rise and superstorms: evidence from paleoclimate data, climate modeling, and modern observations that 2 °C global warming could be dangerous". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 16 (6): 3761–3812. arXiv:1602.01393. Bibcode:2016ACP....16.3761H. doi:10.5194/acp-16-3761-2016. ISSN 1680-7316. S2CID 9410444.
• Harvey, Jeffrey A.; Van den Berg, Daphne; Ellers, Jacintha; Kampen, Remko; et al. (2018). "Internet Blogs, Polar Bears, and Climate-Change Denial by Proxy". BioScience. 68 (4): 281–287. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix133. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5894087. PMID 29662248. (Erratum: doi:10.1093/biosci/biy033, PMID 29608770,  Retraction Watch)
• Hawkins, Ed; Ortega, Pablo; Suckling, Emma; Schurer, Andrew; et al. (2017). "Estimating Changes in Global Temperature since the Preindustrial Period". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 98 (9): 1841–1856. Bibcode:2017BAMS...98.1841H. doi:10.1175/bams-d-16-0007.1. hdl:20.500.11820/f0ba8a1c-a259-4689-9fc3-77ec82fff5ab. ISSN 0003-0007.
• He, Yanyi; Wang, Kaicun; Zhou, Chunlüe; Wild, Martin (2018). "A Revisit of Global Dimming and Brightening Based on the Sunshine Duration". Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (9): 4281–4289. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45.4281H. doi:10.1029/2018GL077424. hdl:20.500.11850/268470. ISSN 1944-8007.
• Hodder, Patrick; Martin, Brian (2009). "Climate Crisis? The Politics of Emergency Framing". Economic and Political Weekly. 44 (36): 53–60. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 25663518.
• Joo, Gea-Jae; Kim, Ji Yoon; Do, Yuno; Lineman, Maurice (2015). "Talking about Climate Change and Global Warming". PLOS ONE. 10 (9): e0138996. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1038996L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138996. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4587979. PMID 26418127.
• Kabir, Russell; Khan, Hafiz T. A.; Ball, Emma; Caldwell, Khan (2016). "Climate Change Impact: The Experience of the Coastal Areas of Bangladesh Affected by Cyclones Sidr and Aila". Journal of Environmental and Public Health. 2016: 9654753. doi:10.1155/2016/9654753. PMC 5102735. PMID 27867400.
• Kaczan, David J.; Orgill-Meyer, Jennifer (2020). "The impact of climate change on migration: a synthesis of recent empirical insights". Climatic Change. 158 (3): 281–300. Bibcode:2020ClCh..158..281K. doi:10.1007/s10584-019-02560-0. S2CID 207988694. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
• Kennedy, J. J.; Thorne, W. P.; Peterson, T. C.; Ruedy, R. A.; et al. (2010). Arndt, D. S.; Baringer, M. O.; Johnson, M. R. (eds.). "How do we know the world has warmed?". Special supplement: State of the Climate in 2009. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 91 (7). S26-S27. doi:10.1175/BAMS-91-7-StateoftheClimate.
• Kopp, R. E.; Hayhoe, K.; Easterling, D. R.; Hall, T.; et al. (2017). "Chapter 15: Potential Surprises: Compound Extremes and Tipping Elements". In USGCRP 2017. pp. 1–470. Archived from the original on 20 August 2018.
• Kossin, J. P.; Hall, T.; Knutson, T.; Kunkel, K. E.; Trapp, R. J.; Walizer, D. E.; Wehner, M. F. (2017). "Chapter 9: Extreme Storms". In USGCRP2017. pp. 1–470.
• Knutson, T. (2017). "Appendix C: Detection and attribution methodologies overview.". In USGCRP2017. pp. 1–470.
• Kreidenweis, Ulrich; Humpenöder, Florian; Stevanović, Miodrag; Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon; et al. (July 2016). "Afforestation to mitigate climate change: impacts on food prices under consideration of albedo effects". Environmental Research Letters. 11 (8): 085001. Bibcode:2016ERL....11h5001K. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/8/085001. ISSN 1748-9326. S2CID 8779827.
• Kvande, H. (2014). "The Aluminum Smelting Process". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 56 (5 Suppl): S2–S4. doi:10.1097/JOM.0000000000000154. PMC 4131936. PMID 24806722.
• Lapenis, Andrei G. (1998). "Arrhenius and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change". Eos. 79 (23): 271. Bibcode:1998EOSTr..79..271L. doi:10.1029/98EO00206.
• Levermann, Anders; Clark, Peter U.; Marzeion, Ben; Milne, Glenn A.; et al. (2013). "The multimillennial sea-level commitment of global warming". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (34): 13745–13750. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11013745L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1219414110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3752235. PMID 23858443.
• Lenoir, Jonathan; Bertrand, Romain; Comte, Lise; Bourgeaud, Luana; et al. (2020). "Species better track climate warming in the oceans than on land". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 4 (8): 1044–1059. Bibcode:2020NatEE...4.1044L. doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1198-2. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 32451428. S2CID 218879068.
• Liepert, Beate G.; Previdi, Michael (2009). "Do Models and Observations Disagree on the Rainfall Response to Global Warming?". Journal of Climate. 22 (11): 3156–3166. Bibcode:2009JCli...22.3156L. doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2472.1.
• Liverman, Diana M. (2009). "Conventions of climate change: constructions of danger and the dispossession of the atmosphere". Journal of Historical Geography. 35 (2): 279–296. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2008.08.008.
• Loeb, Norman G.; Johnson, Gregory C.; Thorsen, Tyler J.; Lyman, John M.; Rose, Fred G.; Kato, Seiji (2021). "Satellite and Ocean Data Reveal Marked Increase in Earth's Heating Rate". Geophysical Research Letters. 48 (13). American Geophysical Union (AGU). e2021GL093047. Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4893047L. doi:10.1029/2021gl093047. ISSN 0094-8276. S2CID 236233508.
• Mach, Katharine J.; Kraan, Caroline M.; Adger, W. Neil; Buhaug, Halvard; et al. (2019). "Climate as a risk factor for armed conflict". Nature. 571 (7764): 193–197. Bibcode:2019Natur.571..193M. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1300-6. hdl:10871/37969. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31189956. S2CID 186207310.
• Matthews, H. Damon; Gillett, Nathan P.; Stott, Peter A.; Zickfeld, Kirsten (2009). "The proportionality of global warming to cumulative carbon emissions". Nature. 459 (7248): 829–832. Bibcode:2009Natur.459..829M. doi:10.1038/nature08047. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 19516338. S2CID 4423773.
• Matthews, Tom (2018). "Humid heat and climate change". Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment. 42 (3): 391–405. Bibcode:2018PrPG...42..391M. doi:10.1177/0309133318776490. S2CID 134820599.
• McNeill, V. Faye (2017). "Atmospheric Aerosols: Clouds, Chemistry, and Climate". Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. 8 (1): 427–444. doi:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-060816-101538. ISSN 1947-5438. PMID 28415861.
• Melillo, J. M.; Frey, S. D.; DeAngelis, K. M.; Werner, W. J.; et al. (2017). "Long-term pattern and magnitude of soil carbon feedback to the climate system in a warming world". Science. 358 (6359): 101–105. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..101M. doi:10.1126/science.aan2874. hdl:1912/9383. PMID 28983050.
• Mercure, J.-F.; Pollitt, H.; Viñuales, J. E.; Edwards, N. R.; et al. (2018). "Macroeconomic impact of stranded fossil fuel assets" (PDF). Nature Climate Change. 8 (7): 588–593. Bibcode:2018NatCC...8..588M. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0182-1. hdl:10871/37807. ISSN 1758-6798. S2CID 89799744.
• Mitchum, G. T.; Masters, D.; Hamlington, B. D.; Fasullo, J. T.; et al. (2018). "Climate-change–driven accelerated sea-level rise detected in the altimeter era". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (9): 2022–2025. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.2022N. doi:10.1073/pnas.1717312115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5834701. PMID 29440401.
• Mora, Camilo; Dousset, Bénédicte; Caldwell, Iain R.; Powell, Farrah E.; Geronimo, Rollan C.; Bielecki, Coral R.; Counsell, Chelsie W. W.; Dietrich, Bonnie S.; Johnston, Emily T.; Louis, Leo V.; Lucas, Matthew P.; McKenzie, Marie M.; Shea, Alessandra G.; Tseng, Han; Giambelluca, Thomas W.; Leon, Lisa R.; Hawkins, Ed; Trauernicht, Clay (2017). "Global risk of deadly heat". Nature Climate Change. 7 (7): 501–506. Bibcode:2017NatCC...7..501M. doi:10.1038/nclimate3322.
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2019). Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda (Report). Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/25259. ISBN 978-0-309-48455-8.
• National Research Council (2011). "Causes and Consequences of Climate Change". America's Climate Choices. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/12781. ISBN 978-0-309-14585-5. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
• Neukom, Raphael; Steiger, Nathan; Gómez-Navarro, Juan José; Wang, Jianghao; et al. (2019a). "No evidence for globally coherent warm and cold periods over the preindustrial Common Era" (PDF). Nature. 571 (7766): 550–554. Bibcode:2019Natur.571..550N. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1401-2. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31341300. S2CID 198494930.
• Neukom, Raphael; Barboza, Luis A.; Erb, Michael P.; Shi, Feng; et al. (2019b). "Consistent multidecadal variability in global temperature reconstructions and simulations over the Common Era". Nature Geoscience. 12 (8): 643–649. Bibcode:2019NatGe..12..643P. doi:10.1038/s41561-019-0400-0. ISSN 1752-0908. PMC 6675609. PMID 31372180.
• O'Neill, Saffron J.; Boykoff, Max (2010). "Climate denier, skeptic, or contrarian?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (39): E151. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107E.151O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010507107. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2947866. PMID 20807754.
• Poloczanska, Elvira S.; Brown, Christopher J.; Sydeman, William J.; Kiessling, Wolfgang; et al. (2013). "Global imprint of climate change on marine life" (PDF). Nature Climate Change. 3 (10): 919–925. Bibcode:2013NatCC...3..919P. doi:10.1038/nclimate1958. hdl:2160/34111. ISSN 1758-6798.
• Rahmstorf, Stefan; Cazenave, Anny; Church, John A.; Hansen, James E.; et al. (2007). "Recent Climate Observations Compared to Projections" (PDF). Science. 316 (5825): 709. Bibcode:2007Sci...316..709R. doi:10.1126/science.1136843. PMID 17272686. S2CID 34008905. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 September 2018.
• Ramanathan, V.; Carmichael, G. (2008). "Global and Regional Climate Changes due to Black Carbon". Nature Geoscience. 1 (4): 221–227. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1..221R. doi:10.1038/ngeo156.
• Randel, William J.; Shine, Keith P.; Austin, John; Barnett, John; et al. (2009). "An update of observed stratospheric temperature trends". Journal of Geophysical Research. 114 (D2): D02107. Bibcode:2009JGRD..114.2107R. doi:10.1029/2008JD010421. HAL hal-00355600.
• Rauner, Sebastian; Bauer, Nico; Dirnaichner, Alois; Van Dingenen, Rita; Mutel, Chris; Luderer, Gunnar (2020). "Coal-exit health and environmental damage reductions outweigh economic impacts". Nature Climate Change. 10 (4): 308–312. Bibcode:2020NatCC..10..308R. doi:10.1038/s41558-020-0728-x. ISSN 1758-6798. S2CID 214619069.
• Rogelj, Joeri; Forster, Piers M.; Kriegler, Elmar; Smith, Christopher J.; et al. (2019). "Estimating and tracking the remaining carbon budget for stringent climate targets". Nature. 571 (7765): 335–342. Bibcode:2019Natur.571..335R. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1368-z. hdl:10044/1/78011. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31316194. S2CID 197542084.
• Romanello, M; et al. (2022). "The 2022 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: health at the mercy of fossil fuels" (PDF). The Lancet. 400 (10363): 1619–1654. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01540-9. PMC 7616806. PMID 36306815.
• Romanello, M; et al. (2023). "The 2023 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: the imperative for a health-centred response in a world facing irreversible harms" (PDF). The Lancet. 402 (10419): 2346–2394. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01859-7. PMC 7616810. PMID 37977174.
• Ruseva, Tatyana; Hedrick, Jamie; Marland, Gregg; Tovar, Henning; et al. (2020). "Rethinking standards of permanence for terrestrial and coastal carbon: implications for governance and sustainability". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 45: 69–77. Bibcode:2020COES...45...69R. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2020.09.009. ISSN 1877-3435. S2CID 229069907.
• Samset, B. H.; Sand, M.; Smith, C. J.; Bauer, S. E.; et al. (2018). "Climate Impacts From a Removal of Anthropogenic Aerosol Emissions" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (2): 1020–1029. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45.1020S. doi:10.1002/2017GL076079. ISSN 1944-8007. PMC 7427631. PMID 32801404.
• Sand, M.; Berntsen, T. K.; von Salzen, K.; Flanner, M. G.; et al. (2015). "Response of Arctic temperature to changes in emissions of short-lived climate forcers". Nature. 6 (3): 286–289. Bibcode:2016NatCC...6..286S. doi:10.1038/nclimate2880.
• Schmidt, Gavin A.; Ruedy, Reto A.; Miller, Ron L.; Lacis, Andy A. (2010). "Attribution of the present-day total greenhouse effect". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 115 (D20): D20106. Bibcode:2010JGRD..11520106S. doi:10.1029/2010JD014287. ISSN 2156-2202. S2CID 28195537.
• Serdeczny, Olivia; Adams, Sophie; Baarsch, Florent; Coumou, Dim; et al. (2016). "Climate change impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa: from physical changes to their social repercussions" (PDF). Regional Environmental Change. 17 (6): 1585–1600. doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0910-2. hdl:1871.1/c8dfb143-d9e1-4eef-9bbe-67b3c338d07f. ISSN 1436-378X. S2CID 3900505.
• Sutton, Rowan T.; Dong, Buwen; Gregory, Jonathan M. (2007). "Land/sea warming ratio in response to climate change: IPCC AR4 model results and comparison with observations". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (2): L02701. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..34.2701S. doi:10.1029/2006GL028164.
• Smale, Dan A.; Wernberg, Thomas; Oliver, Eric C. J.; Thomsen, Mads; Harvey, Ben P. (2019). "Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services" (PDF). Nature Climate Change. 9 (4): 306–312. Bibcode:2019NatCC...9..306S. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0412-1. ISSN 1758-6798. S2CID 91471054.
• Smith, Joel B.; Schneider, Stephen H.; Oppenheimer, Michael; Yohe, Gary W.; et al. (2009). "Assessing dangerous climate change through an update of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 'reasons for concern'". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (11): 4133–4137. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.4133S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812355106. PMC 2648893. PMID 19251662.
• Smith, N.; Leiserowitz, A. (2013). "The role of emotion in global warming policy support and opposition". Risk Analysis. 34 (5): 937–948. doi:10.1111/risa.12140. PMC 4298023. PMID 24219420.
• Stroeve, J.; Holland, Marika M.; Meier, Walt; Scambos, Ted; et al. (2007). "Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (9): L09501. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..34.9501S. doi:10.1029/2007GL029703.
• Storelvmo, T.; Phillips, P. C. B.; Lohmann, U.; Leirvik, T.; Wild, M. (2016). "Disentangling greenhouse warming and aerosol cooling to reveal Earth's climate sensitivity" (PDF). Nature Geoscience. 9 (4): 286–289. Bibcode:2016NatGe...9..286S. doi:10.1038/ngeo2670. ISSN 1752-0908.
• The Cenozoic CO₂ Proxy Integration Project (CenCOPIP) Consortium; Hönisch, Bärbel; Royer, Dana L.; Breecker, Daniel O.; Polissar, Pratigya J.; Bowen, Gabriel J.; Henehan, Michael J.; Cui, Ying; Steinthorsdottir, Margret; McElwain, Jennifer C.; Kohn, Matthew J.; Pearson, Ann; Phelps, Samuel R.; Uno, Kevin T.; Ridgwell, Andy (2023). "Toward a Cenozoic history of atmospheric CO₂". Science. 382 (6675): eadi5177. Bibcode:2023Sci...382i5177T. doi:10.1126/science.adi5177. hdl:10023/30475. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 38060645.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Turetsky, Merritt R.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Jones, Miriam C.; Anthony, Katey Walter; et al. (2019). "Permafrost collapse is accelerating carbon release". Nature. 569 (7754): 32–34. Bibcode:2019Natur.569...32T. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-01313-4. PMID 31040419.
• Turner, Monica G.; Calder, W. John; Cumming, Graeme S.; Hughes, Terry P.; et al. (2020). "Climate change, ecosystems and abrupt change: science priorities". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 375 (1794). doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0105. PMC 7017767. PMID 31983326.
• Twomey, S. (1977). "The Influence of Pollution on the Shortwave Albedo of Clouds". J. Atmos. Sci. 34 (7): 1149–1152. Bibcode:1977JAtS...34.1149T. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469.
• Tyndall, John (1861). "On the Absorption and Radiation of Heat by Gases and Vapours, and on the Physical Connection of Radiation, Absorption, and Conduction". Philosophical Magazine. 4. 22: 169–194, 273–285. Archived from the original on 26 March 2016.
• Urban, Mark C. (2015). "Accelerating extinction risk from climate change". Science. 348 (6234): 571–573. Bibcode:2015Sci...348..571U. doi:10.1126/science.aaa4984. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25931559.
• USGCRP (2009). Karl, T. R.; Melillo, J.; Peterson, T.; Hassol, S. J. (eds.). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-14407-0. Archived from the original on 6 April 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2024.
• USGCRP (2017). Wuebbles, D. J.; Fahey, D. W.; Hibbard, K. A.; Dokken, D. J.; et al. (eds.). Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 1–470. doi:10.7930/J0J964J6.
• Vandyck, T.; Keramidas, K.; Kitous, A.; Spadaro, J.; et al. (2018). "Air quality co-benefits for human health and agriculture counterbalance costs to meet Paris Agreement pledges". Nature Communications. 9 (4939): 4939. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.4939V. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06885-9. PMC 6250710. PMID 30467311.
• Velders, G. J. M.; Andersen, S. O.; et al. (2007). "The importance of the Montreal Protocol in protecting climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (12): 4814–4819. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.4814V. doi:10.1073/pnas.0610328104. PMC 1817831. PMID 17360370.
• Velders, G. J. M.; et al. (2022). "Projections of hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) emissions and the resulting global warming based on recent trends in observed abundances and current policies". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 22 (9): 6087–6101. Bibcode:2022ACP....22.6087V. doi:10.5194/acp-22-6087-2022. hdl:1721.1/148197.
• Wuebbles, D. J.; Easterling, D. R.; Hayhoe, K.; Knutson, T.; et al. (2017). "Chapter 1: Our Globally Changing Climate" (PDF). In USGCRP2017.
• Walsh, John; Wuebbles, Donald; Hayhoe, Katherine; Kossin, Kossin; et al. (2014). "Appendix 3: Climate Science Supplement" (PDF). Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment. US National Climate Assessment.
• Wang, Bin; Shugart, Herman H.; Lerdau, Manuel T. (2017). "Sensitivity of global greenhouse gas budgets to tropospheric ozone pollution mediated by the biosphere". Environmental Research Letters. 12 (8): 084001. Bibcode:2017ERL....12h4001W. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa7885. ISSN 1748-9326.
• Watts, Nick; Amann, Markus; Arnell, Nigel; Ayeb-Karlsson, Sonja; et al. (2019). "The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate". The Lancet. 394 (10211): 1836–1878. Bibcode:2019Lanc..394.1836W. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32596-6. hdl:10871/40583. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 31733928. S2CID 207976337.
• Weart, Spencer (2013). "Rise of interdisciplinary research on climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (Supplement 1): 3657–3664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107482109. PMC 3586608. PMID 22778431.
• Wild, M.; Gilgen, Hans; Roesch, Andreas; Ohmura, Atsumu; et al. (2005). "From Dimming to Brightening: Decadal Changes in Solar Radiation at Earth's Surface". Science. 308 (5723): 847–850. Bibcode:2005Sci...308..847W. doi:10.1126/science.1103215. PMID 15879214. S2CID 13124021.
• Williams, Richard G; Ceppi, Paulo; Katavouta, Anna (2020). "Controls of the transient climate response to emissions by physical feedbacks, heat uptake and carbon cycling". Environmental Research Letters. 15 (9): 0940c1. Bibcode:2020ERL....15i40c1W. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab97c9. hdl:10044/1/80154.
• Wolff, Eric W.; Shepherd, John G.; Shuckburgh, Emily; Watson, Andrew J. (2015). "Feedbacks on climate in the Earth system: introduction". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 373 (2054): 20140428. Bibcode:2015RSPTA.37340428W. doi:10.1098/rsta.2014.0428. PMC 4608041. PMID 26438277.
• Young, Paul J.; Harper, Anna B.; Huntingford, Chris; et al. (2021). "The Montreal Protocol protects the terrestrial carbon sink". Nature. 596 (7872): 384–388. Bibcode:2021Natur.596..384Y. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03737-3. PMID 34408332.
• Zeng, Ning; Yoon, Jinho (2009). "Expansion of the world's deserts due to vegetation-albedo feedback under global warming". Geophysical Research Letters. 36 (17): L17401. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3617401Z. doi:10.1029/2009GL039699. ISSN 1944-8007. S2CID 1708267.
• Zhang, Jinlun; Lindsay, Ron; Steele, Mike; Schweiger, Axel (2008). "What drove the dramatic arctic sea ice retreat during summer 2007?". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (11): 1–5. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3511505Z. doi:10.1029/2008gl034005. S2CID 9387303.

Books, reports and legal documents

• Academia Brasileira de Ciéncias (Brazil); Royal Society of Canada; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Académie des Sciences (France); Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Germany); Indian National Science Academy; Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (Italy); Science Council of Japan, Academia Mexicana de Ciencias; Academia Mexicana de Ciencias (Mexico); Russian Academy of Sciences; Academy of Science of South Africa; Royal Society (United Kingdom); National Academy of Sciences (United States of America) (May 2009). "G8+5 Academies' joint statement: Climate change and the transformation of energy technologies for a low carbon future" (PDF). The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2010. Retrieved 5 May 2010.
• Archer, David; Pierrehumbert, Raymond (2013). The Warming Papers: The Scientific Foundation for the Climate Change Forecast. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-68733-8.
• Bridle, Richard; Sharma, Shruti; Mostafa, Mostafa; Geddes, Anna (June 2019). Fossil Fuel to Clean Energy Subsidy Swaps (PDF) (Report).
• Climate Focus (December 2015). "The Paris Agreement: Summary. Climate Focus Client Brief on the Paris Agreement III" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
• Conceição; et al. (2020). Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF) (Report). United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
• DeFries, Ruth; Edenhofer, Ottmar; Halliday, Alex; Heal, Geoffrey; et al. (September 2019). The missing economic risks in assessments of climate change impacts (PDF) (Report). Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, London School of Economics and Political Science.
• Dessler, Andrew E. and Edward A. Parson, eds. The science and politics of global climate change: A guide to the debate (Cambridge University Press, 2019).
• Dessai, Suraje (2001). "The climate regime from The Hague to Marrakech: Saving or sinking the Kyoto Protocol?" (PDF). Tyndall Centre Working Paper 12. Tyndall Centre. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 5 May 2010.
• Dunlap, Riley E.; McCright, Aaron M. (2011). "Chapter 10: Organized climate change denial". In Dryzek, John S.; Norgaard, Richard B.; Schlosberg, David (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society. Oxford University Press. pp. 144–160. ISBN 978-0-19-956660-0.
• Dunlap, Riley E.; McCright, Aaron M. (2015). "Chapter 10: Challenging Climate Change: The Denial Countermovement". In Dunlap, Riley E.; Brulle, Robert J. (eds.). Climate Change and Society: Sociological Perspectives. Oxford University Press. pp. 300–332. ISBN 978-0-19-935611-9.
• Ebi, Kristie L.; Balbus, John; Luber, George; Bole, Aparna; Crimmins, Allison R.; Glass, Gregory E.; Saha, Shubhayu; Shimamoto, Mark M.; Trtanj, Juli M.; White-Newsome, Jalonne L. (2018). Chapter 14 : Human Health. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: The Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II (Report). doi:10.7930/nca4.2018.ch14.
• Flavell, Alex (2014). IOM outlook on migration, environment and climate change (PDF) (Report). Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Migration (IOM). ISBN 978-92-9068-703-0. OCLC 913058074.
• Fleming, James Rodger (2007). The Callendar Effect: the life and work of Guy Stewart Callendar (1898–1964). Boston: American Meteorological Society. ISBN 978-1-878220-76-9.
• Flynn, C.; Yamasumi, E.; Fisher, S.; Snow, D.; et al. (January 2021). Peoples' Climate Vote (PDF) (Report). UNDP and University of Oxford. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
• Flynn, C.; Jardon, S. T.; et al. (June 2024). Peoples' Climate Vote 2024 Results (PDF) (Report). UNDP and University of Oxford. Retrieved 1 November 2024.
• Global Methane Initiative (2020). Global Methane Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities (PDF) (Report). Global Methane Initiative.
• Hallegatte, Stephane; Bangalore, Mook; Bonzanigo, Laura; Fay, Marianne; et al. (2016). Shock Waves : Managing the Impacts of Climate Change on Poverty. Climate Change and Development (PDF). Washington, D.C.: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0673-5. hdl:10986/22787. ISBN 978-1-4648-0674-2.
• Haywood, Jim (2016). "Chapter 27 – Atmospheric Aerosols and Their Role in Climate Change". In Letcher, Trevor M. (ed.). Climate Change: Observed Impacts on Planet Earth. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-63524-2.
• IEA (December 2020). "COVID-19 and energy efficiency". Energy Efficiency 2020 (Report). Paris, France. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
• IEA (October 2021). Net Zero By 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector (PDF) (Report). Paris, France. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
• IEA (October 2023). World Energy Outlook 2023 (PDF) (Report). Paris, France. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
• Krogstrup, Signe; Oman, William (4 September 2019). Macroeconomic and Financial Policies for Climate Change Mitigation: A Review of the Literature (PDF). IMF working papers. Vol. 19. doi:10.5089/9781513511955.001. ISBN 978-1-5135-1195-5. ISSN 1018-5941. S2CID 203245445.
• Leiserowitz, A.; Carman, J.; Buttermore, N.; Wang, X.; et al. (2021). International Public Opinion on Climate Change (PDF) (Report). New Haven, CT: Yale Program on Climate Change Communication and Facebook Data for Good. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
• Letcher, Trevor M., ed. (2020). Future Energy: Improved, Sustainable and Clean Options for our Planet (Third ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-102886-5.
• Meinshausen, Malte (2019). "Implications of the Developed Scenarios for Climate Change". In Teske, Sven (ed.). Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5 °C and +2 °C. Springer International Publishing. pp. 459–469. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2_12. ISBN 978-3-030-05843-2. S2CID 133868222.
• Miller, J.; Du, L.; Kodjak, D. (2017). Impacts of World-Class Vehicle Efficiency and Emissions Regulations in Select G20 Countries (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: The International Council on Clean Transportation.
• Müller, Benito (February 2010). Copenhagen 2009: Failure or final wake-up call for our leaders? EV 49 (PDF). Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. p. i. ISBN 978-1-907555-04-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
• National Academies (2008). Understanding and responding to climate change: Highlights of National Academies Reports, 2008 edition (PDF) (Report). National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
• National Research Council (2012). Climate Change: Evidence, Impacts, and Choices (Report). Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 21 November 2023.
• Newell, Peter (14 December 2006). Climate for Change: Non-State Actors and the Global Politics of the Greenhouse. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02123-4. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
• NOAA. "January 2017 analysis from NOAA: Global and Regional Sea Level Rise Scenarios for the United States" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 December 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2019.
• Olivier, J. G. J.; Peters, J. A. H. W. (2019). Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions (PDF). The Hague: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency.
• Oreskes, Naomi (2007). "The scientific consensus on climate change: How do we know we're not wrong?". In DiMento, Joseph F. C.; Doughman, Pamela M. (eds.). Climate Change: What It Means for Us, Our Children, and Our Grandchildren. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54193-0.
• Oreskes, Naomi; Conway, Erik (2010). Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (first ed.). Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-59691-610-4.
• Pew Research Center (November 2015). Global Concern about Climate Change, Broad Support for Limiting Emissions (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 5 August 2021.
• REN21 (2020). Renewables 2020 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. ISBN 978-3-948393-00-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Royal Society (13 April 2005). Economic Affairs – Written Evidence. The Economics of Climate Change, the Second Report of the 2005–2006 session, produced by the UK Parliament House of Lords Economics Affairs Select Committee. UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
• Setzer, Joana; Byrnes, Rebecca (July 2019). Global trends in climate change litigation: 2019 snapshot (PDF). London: the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment and the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy.
• Steinberg, D.; Bielen, D.; et al. (July 2017). Electrification & Decarbonization: Exploring U.S. Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Scenarios with Widespread Electrification and Power Sector Decarbonization (PDF) (Report). Golden, Colorado: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
• Teske, Sven, ed. (2019). "Executive Summary" (PDF). Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5 °C and +2 °C. Springer International Publishing. pp. xiii–xxxv. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2. ISBN 978-3-030-05843-2. S2CID 198078901.
• Teske, Sven; Pregger, Thomas; Naegler, Tobias; Simon, Sonja; et al. (2019). "Energy Scenario Results". In Teske, Sven (ed.). Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5 °C and +2 °C. Springer International Publishing. pp. 175–402. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2_8. ISBN 978-3-030-05843-2.
• Teske, Sven (2019). "Trajectories for a Just Transition of the Fossil Fuel Industry". In Teske, Sven (ed.). Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5 °C and +2 °C. Springer International Publishing. pp. 403–411. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2_9. ISBN 978-3-030-05843-2. S2CID 133961910.
• UN FAO (2016). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world's forests changing? (PDF) (Report). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 978-92-5-109283-5. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
• Emissions Gap Report 2019 (PDF). Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme. 2019. ISBN 978-92-807-3766-0.
• Emissions Gap Report 2024. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme. 2024. ISBN 978-92-807-4185-8.
• UNEP (2018). The Adaptation Gap Report 2018. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). ISBN 978-92-807-3728-8.
• UNFCCC (1992). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (PDF).
• UNFCCC (1997). "Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change". United Nations.
• UNFCCC (30 March 2010). "Decision 2/CP.15: Copenhagen Accord". Report of the Conference of the Parties on its fifteenth session, held in Copenhagen from 7 to 19 December 2009. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. FCCC/CP/2009/11/Add.1. Archived from the original on 30 April 2010. Retrieved 17 May 2010.
• UNFCCC (2015). "Paris Agreement" (PDF). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• UNFCCC (26 February 2021). Nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement Synthesis report by the secretariat (PDF) (Report). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• Park, Susin (May 2011). "Climate Change and the Risk of Statelessness: The Situation of Low-lying Island States" (PDF). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
• United States Environmental Protection Agency (2016). Methane and Black Carbon Impacts on the Arctic: Communicating the Science (Report). Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2019.
• Van Oldenborgh, Geert-Jan; Philip, Sjoukje; Kew, Sarah; Vautard, Robert; et al. (2019). "Human contribution to the record-breaking June 2019 heat wave in France". Semantic Scholar. S2CID 199454488.
• Weart, Spencer (October 2008). The Discovery of Global Warming (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03189-0. Archived from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
• Weart, Spencer (February 2019). The Discovery of Global Warming (online ed.). Archived from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
  • Weart, Spencer (January 2020). "The Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effect". The Discovery of Global Warming. American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
  • Weart, Spencer (January 2020). "The Public and Climate Change". The Discovery of Global Warming. American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
    • Weart, Spencer (January 2020). "The Public and Climate Change: Suspicions of a Human-Caused Greenhouse (1956–1969)". The Discovery of Global Warming. American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
  • Weart, Spencer (January 2020). "The Public and Climate Change (cont. – since 1980)". The Discovery of Global warming. American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
    • Weart, Spencer (January 2020). "The Public and Climate Change: The Summer of 1988". The Discovery of Global Warming. American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
• State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2019 (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: World Bank. June 2019. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1435-8. hdl:10986/29687. ISBN 978-1-4648-1435-8.
• World Economic Forum (2024). Quantifying the Impact of Climate Change on Human Health (PDF) (Report).{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
• World Health Organization (2016). Ambient air pollution: a global assessment of exposure and burden of disease (Report). Geneva, Switzerland. ISBN 978-92-4-151135-3.
• COP24 Special Report Health and Climate Change (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2018. ISBN 978-92-4-151497-2.
• World Meteorological Organization (2022). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion (PDF) (Report). GAW Report No. 278. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization. ISBN 978-9914-733-99-0.
  • World Meteorological Organization (2022). "Executive Summary" (PDF). WMO SAOD 2022.
• WMO Statement on the State of the Global Climate in 2023. WMO-No. 1347. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization. 2024. ISBN 978-92-63-11347-4.
• WMO Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update: 2024-2028 (Report). Geneva: World Meteorological Organization. 2024.
• Creating a Sustainable Food Future: A Menu of Solutions to Feed Nearly 10 Billion People by 2050 (PDF). Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute. December 2019. ISBN 978-1-56973-953-2.

Non-technical sources

• Associated Press
  • Colford, Paul (22 September 2015). "An addition to AP Stylebook entry on global warming". AP Style Blog. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
• BBC
  • "UK Parliament declares climate change emergency". BBC. 1 May 2019. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  • Rigby, Sara (3 February 2020). "Climate change: should we change the terminology?". BBC Science Focus Magazine. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
• Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
  • Stover, Dawn (23 September 2014). "The global warming 'hiatus'". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on 11 July 2020.
• Carbon Brief
  • Yeo, Sophie (4 January 2017). "Clean energy: The challenge of achieving a 'just transition' for workers". Carbon Brief. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
  • McSweeney, Robert M. (19 June 2017). "Billions to face 'deadly threshold' of heat extremes by 2100, finds study". Carbon Brief.
  • Yeo, Sophie (21 November 2017). "Explainer: Why a UN climate deal on HFCs matters". Carbon Brief. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
  • McSweeney, Robert M.; Hausfather, Zeke (15 January 2018). "Q&A: How do climate models work?". Carbon Brief. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
  • Hausfather, Zeke (19 April 2018). "Explainer: How 'Shared Socioeconomic Pathways' explore future climate change". Carbon Brief. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  • Hausfather, Zeke (8 October 2018). "Analysis: Why the IPCC 1.5C report expanded the carbon budget". Carbon Brief. Retrieved 28 July 2020.
  • Dunne, Daisy; Gabbatiss, Josh; McSweeney, Robert (7 January 2020). "Media reaction: Australia's bushfires and climate change". Carbon Brief. Retrieved 11 January 2020.
  • McSweeney, Robert (10 February 2020). "Nine Tipping Points That Could Be Triggered by Climate Change". Carbon Brief. Archived from the original on 7 October 2024. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
  • Gabbatiss, Josh; Tandon, Ayesha (4 October 2021). "In-depth Q&A: What is 'climate justice'?". Carbon Brief. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  • Hausfather, Zeke; Forster, Piers (3 July 2023). "Analysis: How low-sulphur shipping rules are affecting global warming". Carbon Brief. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
• Climate.gov
  • Lindsey, Rebecca (23 June 2022). "Climate Change: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide". Climate.gov. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
• Deutsche Welle
  • Ruiz, Irene Banos (22 June 2019). "Climate Action: Can We Change the Climate From the Grassroots Up?". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 23 June 2019. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
• EPA
  • "Myths vs. Facts: Denial of Petitions for Reconsideration of the Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 10 September 2020. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2017.
  • "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 10 September 2024. Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  • "Overview of Greenhouse Gases". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 11 April 2024. Archived from the original on 9 October 2024. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
• EUobserver
  • "Copenhagen failure 'disappointing', 'shameful'". EUobserver. 20 December 2009. Archived from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
• European Parliament
  • Ciucci, M. (February 2020). "Renewable Energy". European Parliament. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
• The Guardian
  • Carrington, Damian (19 March 2019). "School climate strikes: 1.4 million people took part, say campaigners". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 20 March 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
  • Rankin, Jennifer (28 November 2019). "'Our house is on fire': EU parliament declares climate emergency". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  • Watts, Jonathan (19 February 2020). "Oil and gas firms 'have had far worse climate impact than thought'". The Guardian.
  • McCurry, Justin (28 October 2020). "South Korea vows to go carbon neutral by 2050 to fight climate emergency". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
• International Energy Agency
  • "Projected Costs of Generating Electricity 2020". IEA. 9 December 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
• NASA
  • "Arctic amplification". NASA. 2013. Archived from the original on 31 July 2018.
  • Conway, Erik M. (5 December 2008). "What's in a Name? Global Warming vs. Climate Change". NASA. Archived from the original on 9 August 2010.
  • Shaftel, Holly (January 2016). "What's in a name? Weather, global warming and climate change". NASA Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
  • Shaftel, Holly; Jackson, Randal; Callery, Susan; Bailey, Daniel, eds. (7 July 2020). "Overview: Weather, Global Warming and Climate Change". Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
• National Conference of State Legislators
  • "State Renewable Portfolio Standards and Goals". National Conference of State Legislators. 17 April 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
• National Geographic
  • Welch, Craig (13 August 2019). "Arctic permafrost is thawing fast. That affects us all". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 14 August 2019. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
• National Science Digital Library
  • Fleming, James R. (17 March 2008). "Climate Change and Anthropogenic Greenhouse Warming: A Selection of Key Articles, 1824–1995, with Interpretive Essays". National Science Digital Library Project Archive PALE:ClassicArticles. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
• Natural Resources Defense Council
  • "What Is the Clean Power Plan?". Natural Resources Defense Council. 29 September 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2020.
• The New York Times
  • Rudd, Kevin (25 May 2015). "Paris Can't Be Another Copenhagen". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
• NOAA
  • NOAA (10 July 2011). "Polar Opposites: the Arctic and Antarctic". Archived from the original on 22 February 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
  • Huddleston, Amara (17 July 2019). "Happy 200th birthday to Eunice Foote, hidden climate science pioneer". NOAA Climate.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
• Our World in Data
  • Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (15 January 2018). "Land Use". Our World in Data. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  • Ritchie, Hannah (18 September 2020). "Sector by sector: where do global greenhouse gas emissions come from?". Our World in Data. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
  • Roser, Max (2022). "Why did renewables become so cheap so fast?". Our World in Data. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
• Pew Research Center
  • Fagan, Moira; Huang, Christine (16 October 2020). "Many globally are as concerned about climate change as about the spread of infectious diseases". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
• Politico
  • Tamma, Paola; Schaart, Eline; Gurzu, Anca (11 December 2019). "Europe's Green Deal plan unveiled". Politico. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
• RIVM
  • Documentary Sea Blind (Dutch Television) (in Dutch). RIVM: Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment. 11 October 2016. Archived from the original on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 26 February 2019.
• Salon
  • Leopold, Evelyn (25 September 2019). "How leaders planned to avert climate catastrophe at the UN (while Trump hung out in the basement)". Salon. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
• ScienceBlogs
  • Gleick, Peter (7 January 2017). "Statements on Climate Change from Major Scientific Academies, Societies, and Associations (January 2017 update)". ScienceBlogs. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
• Scientific American
  • Ogburn, Stephanie Paige (29 April 2014). "Indian Monsoons Are Becoming More Extreme". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 22 June 2018.
• Smithsonian
  • Wing, Scott L. (29 June 2016). "Studying the Climate of the Past Is Essential for Preparing for Today's Rapidly Changing Climate". Smithsonian. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
• The Sustainability Consortium
  • "One-Fourth of Global Forest Loss Permanent: Deforestation Is Not Slowing Down". The Sustainability Consortium. 13 September 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
• UNFCCC
  • "What are United Nations Climate Change Conferences?". UNFCCC. Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  • "What is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change?". UNFCCC.
• Union of Concerned Scientists
  • "Carbon Pricing 101". Union of Concerned Scientists. 8 January 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
• Vice
  • Segalov, Michael (2 May 2019). "The UK Has Declared a Climate Emergency: What Now?". Vice. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
• The Verge
  • Calma, Justine (27 December 2019). "2019 was the year of 'climate emergency' declarations". The Verge. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
• Vox
  • Roberts, D. (20 September 2019). "Getting to 100% renewables requires cheap energy storage. But how cheap?". Vox. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
• World Health Organization
  • "We must fight one of the world's biggest health threats: climate change". World Health Organization. 3 November 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2024.
• World Resources Institute
  • Levin, Kelly (8 August 2019). "How Effective Is Land At Removing Carbon Pollution? The IPCC Weighs In". World Resources institute. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
  • Seymour, Frances; Gibbs, David (8 December 2019). "Forests in the IPCC Special Report on Land Use: 7 Things to Know". World Resources Institute.
• Yale Climate Connections
  • Peach, Sara (2 November 2010). "Yale Researcher Anthony Leiserowitz on Studying, Communicating with American Public". Yale Climate Connections. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 30 July 2018.

External links

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: IPCC (IPCC)
• UN: Climate Change (UN)
• Met Office: Climate Guide (Met Office)
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Climate (NOAA)