This article is about the ancient conception of time and opportunity. For the Greek personification of opportunity, see Caerus. For other uses, see Kairos (disambiguation).
It is one of two words that the ancient Greeks had for 'time'; the other being chronos (χρόνος). Whereas the latter refers to chronological or sequential time,[2]kairos signifies a good or proper time for action. In this sense, while chronos is quantitative, kairos has a qualitative, permanent nature.[3]
In his 1951 etymological studies of the word, Onians traces the primary root back to ancient Greek associations with both archery and weaving.[4]
In archery, kairos denotes the moment in which an arrow may be shot with sufficient force to penetrate a target. In weaving, kairos denotes the moment in which the shuttle could be passed through threads on the loom.[5] Similarly, in his Kaironomia (1983), E.C. White defines kairos as the "long, tunnel-like aperture through which the archer's arrow has to pass", and as the moment "when the weaver must draw the yarn through a gap that momentarily opens in the warp of the cloth being woven".[6] Both are examples of the precise timing of a decision/action to achieve the best outcome.
In the literature of the classical ancient world, writers and orators used kairos to specify moments of opportune action, often through metaphors involving archery and one's ability to aim and shoot at the exact right time on-target. The ancient Greeks formulated kairos in general as a tool to explain and understand the interposition of humans for their actions and the due consequences.[7]
Kairos is also an alternate spelling of the name of the minor Greek deity Caerus, the god of luck and opportunity.[8]
In rhetoric, kairos is "a passing instant when an opening appears which must be driven through with force if success is to be achieved."[9]Kairos, then, means that one must find the best situation, taking timing into consideration, to act.
Kairos was central to the Sophists, who stressed the rhetor's ability to adapt to and take advantage of changing and contingent circumstances. In Panathenaicus, Isocrates writes that educated people are those "who manage well the circumstances which they encounter day by day, and who possess a judgment which is accurate in meeting occasions as they arise and rarely misses the expedient course of action."
Kairos is also very important in Aristotle's scheme of rhetoric. Kairos is, for Aristotle, the time and space context in which the proof will be delivered. Kairos stands alongside other contextual elements of rhetoric: The Audience, which is the psychological and emotional makeup of those who will receive the proof; and To Prepon, which is the style with which the orator clothes the proof.
In Ancient Greece, kairos was utilized by both of the two main schools of thought in the field of rhetoric, focusing specifically on how kairos applies to speeches. The competing schools were those of the Sophists and their opposition, led by philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato. Sophism approached rhetoric as an art form. Members of the school would travel around Greece teaching citizens about the art of rhetoric and successful discourse. In his article "Toward a Sophistic Definition of Rhetoric", John Poulakos defines rhetoric from a Sophistic perspective as follows: "Rhetoric is the art which seeks to capture in opportune moments that which is appropriate and attempts to suggest that which is possible."[10] Aristotle and Plato, on the other hand, viewed Sophistic rhetoric as a tool used to manipulate others, and criticized those who taught it.
Kairos fits into the Sophistic scheme of rhetoric in conjunction with the ideas of prepon and dynaton. These two terms combined with kairos are their keys to successful rhetoric. As stated by Poulakos, Prepon deals with the notion that "what is said must conform to both audience and occasion."[10] Dynaton has to do with the idea of the possible, or what the speaker is attempting to convince the audience of. Kairos in the Sophistic context is based on the thought that speech must happen at a certain time in order for it to be most effective. If rhetoric is to be meaningful and successful, it must be presented at the right moment, or else it will not have the same impact on the members of the audience.
Aristotle and his followers also discuss the importance of kairos in their teachings. In his Rhetoric, one of the ways that Aristotle uses the idea of kairos is in reference to the specificity of each rhetorical situation. Aristotle believed that each rhetorical situation was different, and therefore different rhetorical devices needed to be applied at that point in time. One of the most well known parts of Aristotle's Rhetoric is when he discusses the roles of pathos, ethos, and logos. Aristotle ties kairos to these concepts, claiming that there are times in each rhetorical situation when one needs to be utilized over the others.[11]
Kairos has classically been defined as a concept that focused on "the uniquely timely, the spontaneous, the radically particular."[12] Ancient Pythagoreans thought kairos to be one of the most fundamental laws of the universe. Kairos was said to piece together the dualistic ways of the entire universe. Empedocles was the philosopher who connected kairos to the principle of opposites and harmony. It then became the principle of conflict and resolution and was thus inserted as a concept for rhetoric.[13]
Modern rhetorical definition
Aaron Hess (2011)[14] submits a definition of kairos for the present day that bridges the two classical applications: Hess addresses Poulakos' view that, "In short, kairos dictates that what is said, must be said at the right time."[10] He also suggests that in addition to timeliness, kairos considers appropriateness. According to Hess, kairos can either be understood as, "the decorum or propriety of any given moment and speech act, implying a reliance on the given or known", or as "the opportune, spontaneous, or timely."[14] Although these two ideas of kairos might seem conflicting, Hess says that they offer a more extensive understanding of the term. Furthermore, they encourage creativity, which is necessary to adapt to unforeseen obstacles and opinions that can alter the opportune or appropriate moment, i.e. kairos. Being able to recognize the propriety of a situation while having the ability to adapt one's rhetoric allows taking advantage of kairos to be successful. Hess's updated definition of kairos concludes that along with taking advantage of the timeliness and appropriateness of a situation, the term also implies being knowledgeable of and involved in the environment where the situation is taking place in order to benefit fully from seizing the opportune moment.
Hess'[14] conflicting perspective on kairos is exemplified by the disagreement between Lloyd Bitzer (1968)[15] and Richard Vatz (1983)[16] about the 'rhetorical situation'. Bitzer argues that 'rhetorical situations' exist independent of human perspective; a situation invites discourse. He discusses the feeling of a missed opportunity (kairos) to speak and the tendency to create a later speech in response to that unseized moment.[15] However, Vatz counters Bitzer's view by claiming that a situation is made rhetorical by the perception of its interpreter and the way which they choose to respond to it, whether with discourse or not. It is the rhetor's responsibility to give an event meaning through linguistic depiction.[16] Both Bitzer's and Vatz' perspectives add depth to Hess'[14] ideas that kairos is concerned with both timeliness and appropriateness. On one hand, Bitzer's argument[15] supports Hess' claim that kairos is spontaneous, and one must be able to recognize the situation as opportune in order to take advantage of it.[14] On the other hand, Vatz' idea that the rhetor is responsible[16] reinforces Hess' suggestion of the need to be knowledgeable and involved in the surrounding environment in order to fully profit from the situation.[14]
According to Bitzer, kairos is composed of exigence, audience, and constraints.[15] Exigence is the inherent pressure to do something about a situation immediately, with the action required depending on the situation. The audience are the listeners who the rhetor is attempting to persuade. Constraints are the external factors that challenges the rhetor's ability to influence, such as the audience's personal beliefs and motivations.[15][17]
Additionally, factors such as cultural background, previous social experiences, and current mood, can influence the capacity to see and understand the correct and opportune moment of action.[17] Thus, the difficulty of using kairos in a modern rhetorical setting is understanding and working within its constraints, while also carefully considering unexpected situations and encounters that arise, in order to present one's rhetorical argument as naturally as possible.[17]
Definitions of kairos using modern English are inherently vague: There is no one word in today's English language that succinctly encompasses the meaning of kairos (similar to ethos, logos, and pathos). Michael Harker (2007) says, "Like the 'points' on the rhetorical triangle, the meaning of kairos is not definitive but rather a starting point for grasping the whole of an argument."[18]: 80 The inclusion of kairos in modern composition has not been implicitly made, but there are undertones. Various components of kairos are included in modern composition and have made profound effects on modern composition theory.[18]: 85
The purpose of kairos in modern rhetoric is mostly focused on the placement of logos, pathos, and ethos. It is used as a "starting point" in modern rhetoric. Kelly Pender (2003) states the inclusion of kairos within discourse "would try to shift the focus of personal writing from the writer's experiences and emotions to a broader perspective that explicitly concentrates on the rhetorical situation ...."[19]Kairos is an expressive inclusion within the overall subject of discourse, and one that has an effect on the entire rhetoric.[19]
Christian Lundberg and William Keith (2008) describe kairos in their rhetoric guide as the concept that "there is an exact right time to deliver a message if the audience is to be persuaded."[20] Concepts such as relevance, recent events, and who the audience is play a role in determining the right moment to speak. Which has to do with the implications of the original definition for kairos. This implication is if "the target was moving and the soldier only had a narrow gap, the timing of the shot was crucial."[20]
Douglas Downs (2016) defines kairos as the principle of rhetors having little influence over their discourse, which causes them to convey what makes sense in the moment. Kairos serves as a reminder that many of the topics rhetors will respond to are well out of their scope of control.[21]
In Christian theology
In the New Testament, kairos means "the appointed time in the purpose of God," the time when God acts (e.g. Mark 1:15: the kairos is fulfilled and the kingdom of God is at hand). Kairos (used 86 times in the New Testament)[22] refers to an opportune time, a "moment" or a "season" such as "harvest time",[23] whereas chronos (used 54 times)[24] refers to a specific amount of time, such as a day or an hour (e.g. Acts 13:18 and 27:9). Jesus makes a distinction in John 7:6 between "His" time and "His brothers'" time: paradoxically, it is "always" (Greek: πάντοτε) his brothers' time. In the context, they can go to Jerusalem any time they wish.
In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches, before the Divine Liturgy begins, the Deacon exclaims to the Priest, Kairos tou poiēsai tō Kyriō (Καιρὸς τοῦ ποιῆσαι τῷ Κυρίῳ), i.e. 'It is time [kairos] for the Lord to act', indicating that the time of the Liturgy is an intersection with Eternity.
In The Interpretation of History, neo-orthodoxLutheran theologian Paul Tillich made prominent use of the term. For him, the kairoi are those crises in history (see Christian existentialism) which create an opportunity for, and indeed demand, an existential decision by the human subject—the coming of Christ being the prime example (compare Karl Barth's use of Geschichte as opposed to Historie). In the Kairos Document, an example of liberation theology in South Africa under apartheid, the term kairos is used to denote "the appointed time," "the crucial time" into which the document or text is spoken.
In science
In Hippocrates' (460–357 BCE) major theoretical treatises on the nature of medical science and methodology, the term kairos is used within the first line. Hippocrates is generally accepted as the father of medicine, but his contribution to the discourse of science is less discussed. While kairos most often refers to "the right time," Hippocrates also used the term when referencing experimentation. Using this term allowed him to "express the variable components of medical practice more accurately." Here the word refers more to proportion, the mean, and the implicit sense of right measure.
Hippocrates most famous quote about kairos is "every kairos is a chronos, but not every chronos is a kairos."[25]
In A Rhetoric of Doing: Essays on Written Discourse in Honor of James L. Kinneavy by Stephen Paul Witte, Neil Nakadate, and Roger Dennis Cherry (1992) also discusses the art of kairos in the field of science. Citing John Swales, the essay notes that the introduction sections of scientific research articles are nothing more than the construction of openings. This idea derives from the spatial aspect of kairos, or the creation of "an opening," which can be created by writers and discovered by readers. This opening is the opportune time, or kairos. Swales created what he called the "create a research space" model, wherein kairos, or an opening, was constructed. It consisted of four rhetorical moves:[26]
(1) establishing the field;
(2) summarizing previous research;
(3) preparing for present research; and
(4) introducing the present research.
Step (3) is where a gap in previous research is indicated, thus creating the need for more information. The writer constructs a need, and an opening. Because kairos emphasizes change, it is an important aspect of science. Not all scientific research can be presented at the same time or in the same way, but creating an opening makes it possible to construct the right time.[26]
This can easily be related back to Hippocrates' statement that not every opening is an opportunity. Yet, in science, the message can be adapted in such a way that chronos becomes kairos.
The idea can also be expressed as Carolyn Glasshoff (2011) wrote, that specifically in the field of scientific writing,[27]
any text must be influenced by the kairos that exists both before the text is created and during the presentation. In addition, each text helps create a new kairos for texts that come after.[27]
Modern Cairo relief by Dutch artist Janny Brugman-de Vries on the former Alexander Hegius gymnasium on the Nieuwe Markt in Deventer in the Netherlands
In digital media
Some scholars studying kairos in the modern digital sphere argue that the aspects of body/identity, distribution/circulation, access/accessibility, interaction, and economics are handled differently in an online setting and therefore messages that are sent digitally need to be altered to fit the new circumstances. In order to reach online audiences effectively, scholars suggest that context of the information's use, which includes considerations of legal, health-related, disciplinary, and political factors paired with smart rhetorical thinking can solve the issue of miscommunicated messages distributed on online forums.[28]
^Liddel, George; Scott, Robert. "A Greek-English Lexicon". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 30 October 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2022. Definition 2, in particular, references chronological time - dates and years. For example, the reference to Thucydides translates to "but he is somewhat concise and not accurate in his dates." Where "in his dates" is "τοῖς χρόνοις."
^"(Dictionary Entry)". Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon. Retrieved 2015-07-13.
^Stephenson, Hunter W. (2005) "Forecasting Opportunity: Kairos, Production, and Writing, p.4. University Press of America: Oxford
^White, Eric Charles. (1983). Kaironomia: on the will-to-invent. OCLC21688820.
^Drabinski, Emily (September 2014). "Toward a Kairos of Library Instruction". The Journal of Academic Librarianship. 40 (5): 480–485. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2014.06.002. ISSN0099-1333. For the ancient Greeks, kairos offered a way of understanding the when and the how of human intervention in the world, and the changes such intervention could produce.
^Carter, Michael (Autumn 1988). "Stasis and Kairos: Principles of Social Construction in Classical Rhetoric". Rhetoric Review. 7 (1): 101, 102. doi:10.1080/07350198809388842. JSTOR465537.
^ abcdeBitzer, Lloyd F. (January 1968). "The rhetorical situation". Philosophy and Rhetoric. 1: 1–16.
^ abcVatz, Richard E. (1983). "The myth of the rhetorical situation". Philosophy and Rhetoric. 6 (3): 155–60.
^ abcGelang, Marie (2012). "Kairos, the rhythm of timing". Thamyris / Intersecting: Place, Sex & Race. 26: 89–101.
^ abHarker, Michael (September 2007). "The ethics of argument: Re-reading kairos and making sense in a timely fashion". College Composition and Communication. 59 (1): 80–85. doi:10.58680/ccc20076381. JSTOR20456982.
^ abPender, Kelly (Fall 2003). "Kairos and the subject of expressive discourse". Composition Studies. 31 (2): 96. JSTOR43501556.
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Le kairos (καιρός) est un concept qui, adjoint à l'aiôn et au chronos, permet, sinon de définir le temps, du moins de situer les événements selon cette dimension. Faire le bon acte au bon moment participe du Kaïros. Pour ce qui est de la pensée occidentale, le concept de kairos apparaît chez les Grecs sous les traits d'un petit dieu ailé de l'opportunité, qu'il faut attraper quand il passe.
Définitions
Le kairos est le temps du moment opportun. Il qualifie un intervalle, ou une durée précise, importante, voire décisive.
Dans le langage courant, on parle de point de basculement, avec une notion d'un avant et d'un après au sens de Jankélévitch (voir plus bas). Le kairos est donc « le temps T » de l'opportunité : avant est trop tôt, et après trop tard. L'expression « instant d'inflexion » semble convenir : « Maintenant est le bon moment pour agir. »
Le kairos, une dimension du temps n'ayant rien à voir avec la notion linéaire de chronos (temps physique), pourrait être considéré comme une autre dimension du temps créant de la profondeur dans l'instant. Une porte sur une autre perception de l'univers, de l'événement, de soi. Une notion immatérielle du temps mesurée non pas par la montre, mais par le ressenti.
Le dieu grec Kairos est représenté par un jeune homme qui ne porte qu'une touffe de cheveux sur la tête. Quand il passe à notre proximité, il y a trois possibilités :
on ne le voit pas ;
on le voit et on ne fait rien ;
au moment où il passe, on tend la main, on « attrape l'occasion par les cheveux » (en grec ancien : καιρὸν ἁρπάζειν) et on saisit ainsi l'occasion.
Du local vers le temporel, en passant par la juste mesure, le kairos a eu de nombreuses significations plus ou moins établies et compatibles. Il n’est pas possible de trouver un terme français équivalent qui marque toutes les ramifications que la notion grecque a connues.
Le kairos opère la rencontre de deux problèmes : celui de l’action et celui du temps. Toutes ses acceptions ne sont pas temporelles (notamment celles qui se rapportent à la « juste mesure » et la « convenance »), mais elles contiennent et complètent les germes d’une signification spécifiquement temporelle. Le kairos implique une vision du temps qui s'accorde avec une exigence d’efficacité de l’action humaine. Le kairos est un moment, mais si on comprend « moment » uniquement comme une durée mesurable qui s’étend d’un point A à un point B, on est certain de le rater. Il est d’autant plus tentant de parler d’un temps propre au kairos que les Grecs en ont fait une divinité temporelle souvent associée, voire confondue, avec Chronos.
Le kairos se rattache à un certain type d’actions qui doivent être accomplies « à temps » et ne tolèrent ni le retard, ni l’hésitation. Si la notion de kairos est indissociable du mot grec, elle est aussi indissociable du contexte de la Grèce des Ve et IVe siècles av. J.-C. À une époque où l’action devient autonome et ne dépend plus de la volonté divine, la nécessité d’observer le kairos s’est dégagée pour les Grecs de leurs expériences dans de multiples domaines, à savoir, selon Monique Trédé-Boulmer[2] :
en philosophie, le kairos ou « temps kairologique » a pris une très grande importance dans le courant phénoménologique notamment chez Martin Heidegger.
en politique : dans l'Histoire de la guerre du Péloponnèse, Thucydide fait une place importante aux kairoi qui traversent l’Histoire, ces moments qui engagent le sort des cités : déclarations de guerre, négociations ou ruptures d’alliances ;
en rhétorique, « le kairos est le principe qui gouverne le choix d’une argumentation, les moyens utilisés pour prouver et, plus particulièrement, le style adopté », ainsi que le moment où il faut attirer l’attention des auditeurs pour accomplir un retournement de persuasion ;
en théologie, il est du ressort de l'action de Dieu à un moment particulier du continu du temps humain (le Chronos), invitant une action (réponse) humaine opportune concomitante, notamment avec les travaux de Rudolf Bultmann
en art : c’est l’infime nuance, la minime correction, qui fait l’œuvre réussie, c’est devenu, par voie de conséquence, le moment où un artiste doit s’arrêter et laisser son œuvre vivre sa propre vie ;
en médecine : les hippocratiques ont dégagé la notion de crise, instant critique où la maladie évolue vers la guérison ou la mort, c’est à ce moment précis que l’intervention du médecin prend un caractère nécessaire et décisif ;
dans le domaine militaire : le bon stratège sait que la victoire n’est pas une simple question de supériorité numérique et qu’il y a un moment où l’attaque portée sur l’adversaire amènera la panique et donnera une issue définitive à la bataille ;
dans le domaine moral : chez les tragiques, le kairos préserve de la démesure et enseigne le respect de la convenance – dans les traités éthiques d’Aristote, la notion se réduit à une catégorie du Bien selon le temps.
en navigation, où le kairos, associé avec Tyché, permet au navigateur de se diriger en déjouant les pièges de la mer, c’est plus particulièrement dans ce contexte que l’on trouve la mètis, ou intelligence de la ruse ;
Kairos, marque d'imprimeur d'Andreas Cratander, d'après un dessin de Hans Holbein le Jeune et gravée par Jacob Faber, 1522. La phrase en grec précise le sens de la devise Occasio : « En toute chose, il est préférable de saisir le bon moment »[3].
Le kairos a donc un très large champ d’application. Hésiode écrit qu’il est « tout ce qu’il y a de mieux » et Euripide que c’« est le meilleur des guides dans toutes entreprises humaines ». Il n’est cependant pas donné à tout le monde de le saisir ; il appartient au spécialiste qui, ayant des connaissances générales, est capable d’y intégrer les facteurs du moment qui lui permettent de saisir la particularité de la situation. Le kairos relève d’un raisonnement et il n’est pas soumis au jeu du hasard. Pourtant, il joue un rôle décisif dans les situations imprévisibles et inhabituelles.
Toutes les acceptions de kairos ne sont pas directement liées au temps, mais toutes sont liées à l’efficacité. Quel que soit le domaine, il renverse les situations et leur donne une issue définitive : la vie ou la mort, la victoire ou la défaite. Il est la condition de l’action réussie et il nous apprend que, paradoxalement, la réussite tient à presque rien. S’il est si difficile de le définir, cela vient aussi de ce qu’il relève du « presque rien »[4].
Il échappe constamment aux définitions qui lui sont appliquées, parce qu’il se trouve toujours à la jointure de deux notions : l’action et le temps, la compétence et la chance, le général et le particulier. Il n’est jamais tout entier d’un côté ou d’un autre. Cette indétermination est liée à son pouvoir de décision. Il retient pour chaque cas les éléments pertinents pour agir, mais il ne se confond pas avec eux. Il est « libre » de changer, et c’est pour cela qu’il est aussi difficile à saisir dans la pratique qu’à comprendre dans la théorie.
Fortuna de Machiavel
Un Prince digne de ce nom, déclare Machiavel, se doit de faire preuve de virtù dans les circonstances imprévisibles de l'action politique. La virtù qui, s'appuyant sur le libre-arbitre et sur les habiletés — propres, en grande partie, à l'art de la guerre — du Prince, se rapproche bien plus du kairos que de la fortuna ; celle-ci étant, du point de vue du Prince, bien plus mauvaise que bonne. Et Machiavel d'interdir au Prince de « prier » pour un sort favorable, c'est-à-dire d'abdiquer son libre-arbitre et de s'en remettre à une fortuna, complètement aveugle dans son déploiement.
Sous l'angle de la sémiosis, les exégètes des textes de Machiavel — et surtout du Prince et des Discours sur la première décade de Tite-Live — en ont dégagé le concept d'« occasion ». À dire vrai, l'occasion est implicite à ladite virtù et fait écho au kairos, d'autant que le Prince, loin d'être passif comme ses sujets qui en sont réduits au rang d'objet du projet politique, se doit de conserver le pouvoir et de l'accroître en prenant les bonnes initiatives, en saisissant les bonnes occasions, en ayant le goût du risque, en faisant preuve de ruse et de force devant les circonstances changeantes de l'État, en un mot : de savoir user du kairos.
Chez Nietzsche
Dans Par-delà bien et mal, 274, Nietzsche évoque le καιρός : « Le "Raphaël sans mains", ce mot pris au sens le plus large, serait-il dans le domaine du génie, non pas l'exception, mais la règle ? - Le génie n'est peut-être pas si rare ! mais il lui manque les cinq cents mains nécessaires pour maîtriser le Kairos, le "moment propice", pour saisir l'occasion aux cheveux ! ».
Kairos et synchronicité en psychologie analytique
Carl-Gustav Jung utilise le kairos pour élaborer son concept de synchronicité[5]. Il est l'instant où la conscience d'un individu exprime une sensibilité particulière à la survenance concomitante de deux événements fortuits. Cet individu opère à ce moment une association entre ces deux événements en raison d'un état de son être. La coïncidence, alors perçue comme une correspondance, devient signifiante pour la personne qui l'éprouve. L'expérience du kairos relatée par l'analysant constitue un événement spécifique au sein du processus psychothérapique[6],[7].
Relief moderne du Kairos par l'artiste néerlandais Janny Brugman-de Vries sur l'ancien gymnase Alexander Hegius au Nieuwe Markt à Deventer aux Pays-Bas
Annexes
Bibliographie
Pierre-Maxime Schuhl, « De l’instant propice », Revue Philosophique de la France et de l’étranger, vol. 152, , p. 69-72 (lire en ligne, consulté le ).
Pierre Aubenque, Le Problème de l'être chez Aristote, Presses universitaires de France,
Pierre Aubenque, La Prudence chez Aristote, Presses universitaires de France,
collectif dir. Lambros Couloubaritsis et J.-J. Wunenburger et Wunenburger, Les figures du temps, Strasbourg, Presses Universitaires de Strasbourg, , 398 p. (ISBN2-86820-680-8)
Marc Bessin, « "Le Kaïros dans l'analyse temporelle" », Cahiers lillois d'économie et de sociologie, no 32, , p. 55 (lire en ligne, consulté le )
(es) Aurora Egido, Las caras de la prudencia y Baltasar Gracián, Madrid, Castalia,
(en) collectif dir. Phillip Sipiora et James Baumlin et Baumlin, Rhetoric and Kairos : essays in history, theory, and Praxis, State University of New York Press, , 258 p. (ISBN0-7914-5234-4).
Michel de Kemmeter[8]. La Valeur du Temps, Ed. Racine, Bruxelles 2006, (ISBN2-87386-451-6)
↑H.F. Ellenberger, « Développement historique de la notion de processus psychothérapique », Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, vol. 29, nos 1-4, , p. 1–12 (ISSN1423-0348 et 0033-3190, DOI10.1159/000287095, lire en ligne, consulté le )
↑Duc Lê Quang, « Faire advenir l'effet : le moment opportun en psychothérapie dans le miroir de la Chine », Psychothérapies, vol. 33, no 4, , p. 245 (ISSN0251-737X, DOI10.3917/psys.134.0245, lire en ligne, consulté le )
