Onion
De Mi caja de notas
Onion | |
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A display of commercially-grown bulbs, including red and yellow cultivars. | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Monocots |
Order: | Asparagales |
Family: | Amaryllidaceae |
Subfamily: | Allioideae |
Genus: | Allium |
Subgenus: | A. subg. Cepa |
Species: | A. cepa
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Binomial name | |
Allium cepa | |
Synonyms[1] | |
Species synonymy
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An onion (Allium cepa L., from Latin cepa meaning "onion"), also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is a vegetable that is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. The shallot is a botanical variety of the onion which was classified as a separate species until 2011. The onion's close relatives include garlic, scallion, leek, and chives.
The genus contains several other species variously called onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion Allium fistulosum, the tree onion Allium × proliferum, and the Canada onion Allium canadense. The name wild onion is applied to a number of Allium species, but A. cepa is exclusively known from cultivation. Its ancestral wild original form is not known, although escapes from cultivation have become established in some regions. The onion is most frequently a biennial or a perennial plant, but is usually treated as an annual and harvested in its first growing season.
The onion plant has a fan of hollow, bluish-green leaves, and its bulb at the base of the plant begins to swell when a certain day-length is reached. The bulbs are composed of shortened, compressed, underground stems surrounded by fleshy modified scale (leaves) that envelop a central bud at the tip of the stem. In the autumn (or in spring, in the case of overwintering onions), the foliage dies down and the outer layers of the bulb become more dry, and brittle. The crop is harvested and dried and the onions are ready for use or storage. The crop is prone to attack by a number of pests and diseases, particularly the onion fly, the onion eelworm, and various fungi which can cause rotting. Some varieties of A. cepa, such as shallots and potato onions, produce multiple bulbs.
Onions are cultivated and used around the world. As a food item, they are often served raw as a vegetable or part of a prepared savoury dish, but can be eaten cooked or used to make pickles or chutneys. They are pungent when chopped and contain certain chemical substances which may irritate the eyes.
Taxonomy and etymology
The onion plant (Allium cepa), also known as the bulb onion[2] or common onion,[3] is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium.[4][5] It was first officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum.[6] Synonyms during its taxonomic history are:[7][8]
- Allium cepa var. aggregatum – G. Don
- Allium cepa var. bulbiferum – Regel
- Allium cepa var. cepa – Linnaeus
- Allium cepa var. multiplicans – L.H. Bailey
- Allium cepa var. proliferum – (Moench) Regel
- Allium cepa var. solaninum – Alef
- Allium cepa var. viviparum – (Metz) Mansf.[7][8]
A. cepa is known exclusively from cultivation,[9] but related wild species occur in Central Asia and Iran. The most closely related include A. vavilovii from Turkmenistan and A. asarense from Iran.[10][11] The genus Allium contains other species variously called onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. × proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense).[3] The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the common onion group (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as onions. The Aggregatum Group of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots,[12] formerly classed as a separate species,[13][14] and potato onions.[12] Related species include garlic, leek, and chives.[15]
Cepa is commonly accepted as Latin for "onion"; the generic name Allium is the classical Latin name for garlic.[16]
It has an affinity with Spanish: cebolla, Italian: cipolla, Polish: cebula, and the German Zwiebel (this last altered by folk etymology). The English word "chive" is from the Old French chive , in turn from cepa.[17]
Description
The onion is a biennial plant but is usually grown as an annual. Modern varieties typically grow to a height of 15 to 45 cm (6 to 18 in). The leaves are yellowish- to bluish green and grow alternately in a flattened, fan-shaped swathe. They are fleshy, hollow, and cylindrical, with one flattened side. They are at their broadest about a quarter of the way up, beyond which they taper to blunt tips. The base of each leaf is a flattened, usually white sheath that grows out of the basal plate of a bulb. From the underside of the plate, a bundle of fibrous roots extends for a short way into the soil. As the onion matures, food reserves accumulate in the leaf bases, and the bulb of the onion swells.[18]
In the autumn, the leaves die back, and the outer scales of the bulb become dry and brittle, so the crop is normally harvested. If left in the soil over winter, the growing point in the middle of the bulb begins to develop in the spring. New leaves appear, and a long, stout, hollow stem expands, topped by a bract protecting a developing inflorescence. The inflorescence takes the form of a rounded umbel of white flowers with parts in sixes. The seeds are glossy black and triangular in cross-section.[18] The average pH of an onion is around 5.5.[19]
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Roots, leaves and developing bulb
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Inflorescence with flower buds
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Seeds
History
Humans have grown and selectively bred onions in cultivation for at least 7,000 years.[20] The geographic origin of the onion is uncertain; ancient records of onion use span both eastern and western Asia.[21][22] Domestication likely took place in West or Central Asia.[12][23] Onions have been variously described as having originated in Iran, western Pakistan and Central Asia.[21][23]: 1 [22][24] The onion species Allium fistulosum (spring onion, bunching onion) and Allium tuberosum (Chinese leek) were domesticated in China around 6000 BC alongside other vegetables, grains, and fruits.[25]
Recipes using onions and other Allium species were recorded in cuneiform script on clay tablets in ancient Mesopotamia, around 2000 BC; the tablets are held in Yale University's Babylonian collection.[26] The Assyriologist and "gourmet cook"[26] Jean Bottero stated this was "a cuisine of striking richness, refinement, sophistication and artistry".[26]
Ancient Egyptians revered the onion bulb, viewing its spherical shape and concentric rings as symbols of eternal life.[23] Onions were used in Egyptian burials, as evidenced by onion traces found in the eye sockets of Ramesses IV.[27] Pliny the Elder of the first century AD wrote about the use of onions and cabbage in Pompeii. He documented Roman beliefs about the onion's ability to improve ocular ailments, aid in sleep, and heal everything from oral sores and toothaches to dog bites, lumbago, and even dysentery. Archaeologists unearthing Pompeii long after its 79 AD volcanic burial have found gardens resembling those in Pliny's detailed narratives. According to texts collected in the fifth/sixth century AD under the authorial aegis of "Apicius" (said to have been a gourmet), onions were used in many Roman recipes.[23]
In the Age of Discovery, onions were taken to North America by the first European settlers in part of the Columbian exchange. They found close relatives of the plant such as Allium tricoccum readily available and widely used in Native American gastronomy.[21] According to diaries kept by some of the first English colonists, the bulb onion was one of the first crops planted in North America by the Pilgrim fathers.[23] Between 1883 and 1939, inventors in the United States patented 97 inventions meant to make onion-growing more efficient through automation.[28]
Uses
Culinary
Three colour varieties of onions offer different possibilities for the cook:
- Yellow or brown onions are sweet, with many cultivars bred specifically to accentuate this sweetness, such as Vidalia, Walla Walla, Cévennes, and Bermuda.[29] Yellow onions turn a rich, dark brown when caramelised and are used to add a sweet flavour to various dishes, such as French onion soup.[30]
- Red or purple onions, known for their sharp pungent flavour, are commonly cooked in many cuisines, and used raw and in grilling.[30]
- White onions are mild in flavour; they have a golden colour when cooked and a particularly sweet flavour when sautéed.[30][23]
While the large, mature onion bulb is most often eaten, onions can be eaten at immature stages. Young plants may be harvested before bulbing occurs and used whole as spring onions or scallions. When an onion is harvested after bulbing has begun, but the onion is not yet mature, the plants are sometimes referred to as "summer" onions. Onions may be bred and grown to mature at smaller sizes, known as pearl, boiler, or pickler onions; these are not true pearl onions which are a different species.[31] Pearl and boiler onions may be cooked as a vegetable rather than as an ingredient, while pickler onions are often preserved in vinegar as a long-lasting relish.[32] Onions pickled in vinegar are eaten as a side serving with traditional pub food such as a ploughman's lunch.[33]
Onions are commonly chopped and used as an ingredient in various hearty warm dishes, and may be used as a main ingredient in their own right, for example in French onion soup, creamed onions, and onion chutney. They are versatile and can be baked, boiled, braised, grilled, fried, roasted, sautéed, or eaten raw in salads.[34] Onions are a major ingredient of some curries; the Persian-style dopiaza's name means "double onion", and it is used both in the dish's sour curry sauce and as a garnish.[35] Onion powder is a seasoning made from finely ground, dehydrated onions; it is often included in seasoned salt and spice mixes.[36]
Other uses
Onions have particularly large cells that are easy to observe under low magnification. Forming a single layer of cells, the bulb epidermis is easy to separate for educational, experimental, and breeding purposes.[37][38] Onions are therefore commonly used in science education to teach the use of a microscope for observing cell structure.[39] Onion skins can be boiled to make an orange-brown dye.[40]
Composition
Nutrients
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Energy | 166 kJ (40 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
9.34 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sugars | 4.24 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dietary fibre | 1.7 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.1 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1.1 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Water | 89.11 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Fluoride | 1.1 µg | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[41] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[42] |
Most onion cultivars are about 89% water, 9% carbohydrates (including 4% sugar and 2% dietary fibre), 1% protein, and negligible fat (table). Onions contain low amounts of essential nutrients and have an energy value of 166 kJ (40 kilocalories) in a 100 g (3.5 oz) amount. Onions contribute savoury flavour to dishes without contributing significant caloric content.[23]
Phytochemicals
Onion varieties vary widely in phytochemical content, particularly for polyphenols, with shallots having the highest level, six times the amount found in Vidalia onions. Yellow onions have the highest total flavonoid content, an amount 11 times higher than in white onions. Red onions have considerable content of anthocyanin pigments, with at least 25 different compounds identified representing 10% of total flavonoid content.[43] Like garlic,[44] onions can show an additional colour – pink-red – after cutting, an effect caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds.[45] Onion polyphenols are under basic research to determine their possible biological properties in humans.[43][46]
Adverse effects and toxicity
Some people suffer from allergic reactions after handling onions.[47] Symptoms can include contact dermatitis, intense itching, rhinoconjunctivitis, blurred vision, bronchial asthma, sweating, and anaphylaxis. Allergic reactions may not occur when eating cooked onions, possibly due to the denaturing of the proteins from cooking.[48]
Eye irritation
Freshly cut onions can produce a stinging sensation in the eyes of people nearby and often uncontrollable tears. This is caused by the release of a volatile liquid, syn-propanethial-S-oxide and its aerosol, which stimulates nerves in the eye. This gas is produced by a chain of reactions which serve as a defence mechanism: chopping an onion causes damage to cells which releases enzymes called alliinases. These break down amino acid sulfoxides and generate sulfenic acids. A specific sulfenic acid, 1-propenesulfenic acid, is rapidly acted on by a second enzyme, the lacrimatory factor synthase (LFS), producing the syn-propanethial-S-oxide.[4] This gas diffuses through the air and soon reaches the eyes, where it activates sensory neurons. Lacrimal glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant. Eye irritation can be minimised by cutting onions under running water or submerged in a basin of water.[49] Leaving the root end intact also reduces irritation as the onion base has a higher concentration of sulphur compounds than the rest of the bulb.[50]
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Cut onions emit a chemical compound which cause the lacrimal glands in the eyes to become irritated, releasing tears.
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Model of syn-Propanethial-S-oxide, the volatile molecule that causes eye irritation
The amount of sulfenic acids and lacrimal factor released and the irritation effect differs among Allium species. In 2008, the New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research created "no tears" onions by genetic modification to prevent the synthesis of lachrymatory factor synthase in onions.[51] One study suggests that consumers prefer the flavour of onions with lower LFS content.[52] Since the process impedes sulfur ingestion by the plant, some find LFS− onions inferior in flavour.[53]
A method for efficiently differentiating LFS− and LFS+ onions has been developed based on mass spectrometry, with potential application in high-volume production;[54] gas chromatography is also used to measure lachrymatory factor in onions.[55][56] In early 2018, Bayer released the first crop yield of commercially available LFS-silenced onions under the name "Sunions".[57] They were the product of 30 years of cross-breeding; genetic modification was not employed.[57][58]
Guinea hen weed and honey garlic contain a similar lachrymatory factor.[59] Synthetic onion lachrymatory factor has been used in a study related to tear production,[60] and has been proposed as a nonlethal deterrent against thieves and intruders.[61][62]
Onions are toxic to animals including dogs, cats, and guinea pigs.[63][64]
Producing onions
Cultivation
Onions are best cultivated in fertile, well-drained soils. Sandy loams are good as they are low in sulphur, while clayey soils usually have a high sulphur content and produce pungent bulbs. Onions require a high level of nutrients in the soil. Phosphorus is often present in sufficient quantities, but may be applied before planting because of its low level of availability in cold soils. Nitrogen and potash can be applied at regular intervals during the growing season, the last application of nitrogen being at least four weeks before harvesting.[65]
Bulbing onions are day-length sensitive; their bulbs begin growing only after the number of daylight hours has surpassed some minimal quantity. Most traditional European onions are referred to as "long-day" onions, producing bulbs only after 14 hours or more of daylight occurs. Southern European and North African varieties are often known as "intermediate-day" types, requiring only 12–13 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation. "Short-day" onions, which have been developed in more recent times, are planted in mild-winter areas in the autumn and form bulbs in the early spring and require only 11–12 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation.[66] Onions are a cool-weather crop and can be grown in USDA zones 3 to 9.[67] Hot temperatures or other stressful conditions cause them to "bolt", meaning that a flower stem begins to grow.[68]
Onions are grown from seeds or from partially grown bulbs called "sets" or starter bulbs. Onion seeds are short-lived and fresh seeds germinate more effectively when sown in shallow rows, or "drills," with each drill 12" to 18" apart.[67][69] In suitable climates, certain cultivars can be sown in late summer and autumn to overwinter in the ground and produce early crops the following year.[18]
Onion bulbs are produced by sowing seeds in a dense pattern in early summer, then harvested in the autumn when the bulbs are still small, followed by drying and storage. These bulbs are planted the following spring and grow into mature bulbs later in the growing season.[70] Certain cultivars used for growing and storing bulbs may not have as good storage characteristics as those grown directly from seed.[18]
Routine care during the growing season involves keeping the rows free of competing weeds, especially when the plants are young. The plants are shallow-rooted and do not need much water when established. Bulbing usually takes place after 12 to 18 weeks. The bulbs can be gathered when needed to eat fresh, but if stored, they are harvested after the leaves have died back naturally. In dry weather, they may be left on the surface of the soil for a few days for drying, then are placed in nets, roped into strings, or laid in layers in shallow boxes to be stored in a cool, well-ventilated place.[18]
Pests and diseases
Onions suffer from several pests and diseases. The most serious for the home gardener are likely to be the onion fly, stem and bulb eelworm, white rot, and neck rot. Diseases affecting the foliage include rust and smut, downy mildew, and white tip disease. The bulbs may be affected by splitting, white rot, and neck rot. Shanking is a condition in which the central leaves turn yellow and the inner part of the bulb collapses into an unpleasant-smelling slime. Most of these disorders are best treated by removing and burning affected plants.[71] The larvae of the onion leaf miner or leek moth (Acrolepiopsis assectella) sometimes attack the foliage and may burrow down into the bulb.[72]
The onion fly (Delia antiqua) lays eggs on the leaves and stems and on the ground close to onion, shallot, leek, and garlic plants. The fly is attracted to the crop by the smell of damaged tissue and is liable to occur after thinning. Plants grown from sets are less prone to attack. The larvae tunnel into the bulbs and the foliage wilts and turns yellow. The bulbs are disfigured and rot, especially in wet weather. Control measures may include crop rotation, the use of seed dressings, early sowing or planting, and the removal of infested plants.[73]
The onion eelworm (Ditylenchus dipsaci), a tiny parasitic soil-living nematode, causes swollen, distorted foliage. Young plants are killed and older ones produce soft bulbs. No cure is known and affected plants should be uprooted and burned. The site should not be used for growing onions again for several years and should also be avoided for growing carrots, parsnips, and beans, which are also susceptible to the eelworm.[74]
White rot of onions, leeks, and garlic is caused by the soil-borne fungus Sclerotium cepivorum. As the roots rot, the foliage turns yellow and wilts. The bases of the bulbs are attacked and become covered by a fluffy white mass of mycelia, which later produces small, globular black structures called sclerotia. These resting structures remain in the soil to reinfect a future crop. No cure for this fungal disease exists, so affected plants should be removed and destroyed and the ground used for unrelated crops in subsequent years.[75]
Neck rot is a fungal disease affecting onions in storage. It is caused by Botrytis allii, which attacks the neck and upper parts of the bulb, causing a grey mould to develop. The symptoms often first occur where the bulb has been damaged and spread down the affected scales. Large quantities of spores are produced and crust-like sclerotia may also develop. In time, a dry rot sets in and the bulb becomes a dry, mummified structure. This disease may be present throughout the growing period, but only manifests itself when the bulb is in storage. Antifungal seed dressings are available and the disease can be minimised by preventing physical damage to the bulbs at harvesting, careful drying and curing of the mature onions, and correct storage in a cool, dry place with plenty of circulating air.[76]
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Larvae of the onion fly
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Onion smut, Urocystis colchici var. cepulae, on a seedling
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Onion leaf spot caused by Cladosporium allii-cepae
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Bacterial soft rot caused by Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora
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Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum dematium subsp. circinans
Onion oil is authorised for use in the European Union for use as a pesticide against carrot fly in umbelliferous crops (carrots, parsnips, parsley, celery, celeriac).[77]
Production of onions and shallots (green) in 2022 | |
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Country | tonnes |
China | 864,488 |
Mali | 610,576 |
Angola | 558,480 |
Japan | 510,462 |
World | 4,970,615 |
Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization[78] |
Production
Onions are a widely cultivated vegetable crop, produced in the second largest quantity after tomatoes.[79] In 2021, the top global producers of onions were China, India, the United States, and Turkey.[80] In 2022, world production of onions and shallots (as green produce) was 5.0 million tonnes, led by China with 17% of the total, and Mali, Angola, and Japan as secondary producers.[78]
Storage
In the home, cooking onions and sweet onions are best stored at room temperature, optimally in a single layer, in large mesh bags in a dry, cool, dark, well-ventilated location. In this environment, cooking onions have a shelf life of three to four weeks and sweet onions one to two weeks. Cooking onions will absorb odours from apples and pears. Additionally, they draw moisture from vegetables with which they are stored which may cause them to decay.[67][81]
Sweet onions have a greater water and sugar content than cooking onions. This makes them sweeter and milder tasting, but reduces their shelf life. Sweet onions can be stored refrigerated; they have a shelf life of around one month. Irrespective of type, any cut pieces of onion are best tightly wrapped, stored away from other produce, and used within two to three days.[50]
Varieties
Common onion group (var. cepa)
Most of the diversity within A. cepa occurs within this group, the most economically important Allium crop. Plants within this group form large single bulbs, and are grown from seed or seed-grown sets. The majority of cultivated varieties grown for dry bulbs, salad onions, and pickling onions belong to this group.[12] The range of diversity found among these cultivars includes variation in photoperiod (length of day that triggers bulbing), storage life, flavour, and skin colour.[82]
Aggregatum group (var. aggregatum)
This group contains shallots and potato onions, also referred to as multiplier onions. The bulbs are smaller than those of common onions, and a single plant forms an aggregate cluster of several bulbs from a master. They are propagated almost exclusively from daughter bulbs, although reproduction from seed is possible. Shallots are the most important subgroup within this group and comprise the only cultivars cultivated commercially. They form aggregate clusters of small, narrowly ovoid to pear-shaped bulbs. Potato onions differ from shallots in forming larger bulbs with fewer bulbs per cluster, and having a flattened (onion-like) shape. Intermediate forms exist.[12]
I'itoi onion is a prolific multiplier onion cultivated in the Baboquivari Peak Wilderness, Arizona area. This small-bulb type has a shallot-like flavour and is easy to grow and ideal for hot, dry climates. Bulbs are separated, and planted in the fall 25 mm (1 in) below the surface and 300 mm (12 in) apart. Bulbs will multiply into clumps and can be harvested throughout the cooler months. Tops die back in the heat of summer and may return with heavy rains; bulbs can remain in the ground or be harvested and stored in a cool dry place for planting in the fall. The plants rarely flower; propagation is by division.[83]
Hybrids with A. cepa parentage
Some hybrids are cultivated that have A. cepa parentage, such as the diploid tree onion or Egyptian onion (A. ×proliferum), and the triploid onion (A. ×cornutum).[84]
The tree onion or Egyptian onion produces bulblets in the umbel instead of flowers, and is now known to be a hybrid of A. cepa and A. fistulosum. It has previously been treated as a variety of A. cepa, for example A. cepa var. proliferum, A. cepa var. bulbiferum, and A. cepa var. viviparum.[85][86] It has been grown for centuries in Japan and China for use as a salad onion.[87][3]
The triploid onion is a hybrid species with three sets of chromosomes, two sets from A. cepa and the third set from an unknown parent.[86] Various clones of the triploid onion are grown locally in different regions, such as 'Ljutika' in Croatia, and 'Pran', 'Poonch', and 'Srinagar' in the India-Kashmir region. 'Pran' is grown extensively in the northern Indian provinces of Jammu and Kashmir. There are very small genetic differences between 'Pran' and the Croatian clone 'Ljutika', implying a monophyletic origin for this species.[88]
Spring onions or salad onions may be grown from the Welsh onion (A. fistulosum), as well as from A. cepa. Young plants of A. fistulosum and A. cepa look very similar, but may be distinguished by their leaves, which are circular in cross-section in A. fistulosum rather than flattened on one side.[89]
In popular culture
The name 'the Big Onion' was formerly used of New York City, before it became 'the Big Apple', and Chicago became 'the Big Onion'.[26]
The 10th century Exeter Book, written in Old English, contains a riddle which seems to be about an onion, with sexual overtones. The "wondrous creature, a joy to women" stands "in a bed"; "My column is erect and tall"; a woman "rubs me to redness" but at once "she feels my meeting"; the riddle ends "Wet will be that eye."[90]
In the Odyssey, Homer included the lines "I saw the shining tunic about his skin, like the skin of a dried onion, so soft was it, and it shone in the sun".[91] R. Drew Griffith comments that the double comparison of the tunic that Penelope gave to the disguised Odysseus to onion and sun "risks being funny", and notes that Theopompus indeed found it "ridiculous".[92] Griffith suggests that Homer included the onion because of its capacity to produce tears, hinting at Penelope's sorrow at Odysseus's long absence.[92]
Onion Johnnies were Breton farmers and agricultural labourers who travelled from Roscoff in Brittany, originally on foot and later on bicycles, selling strings of distinctive pink onions door to door in Britain.[93]
In India, when the price of onions became very high in 2015, the Hindustan Times recorded that people shared many onion jokes, such as the punning प्या (र)ज़ लो, प्याज़ दो (pya (r)z lo, pyaz do, "take love, give me onions").[94]
See also
References
- ^ "Allium cepa L.". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew – via The Plant List. Note that this website has been superseded by World Flora Online
- ^ "Allium cepa var. cepa". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
- ^ a b c Fritsch 2002, pp. 9–10.
- ^ a b Eric Block, "Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science" (Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2010)
- ^ Brewster, James L. (1994). Onions and other vegetable Alliums (1st ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-85198-753-8.
- ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1753). Species Plantarum (in Latin). Vol. 1. Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii. p. 262. Archived from the original on 16 June 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
- ^ a b NRCS. "Allium cepa". PLANTS Database. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 31 March 2013.
- ^ a b "Allium cepa L." Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ McNeal, Dale W. Jr.; Jacobsen, T. D. (2002). "Allium cepa". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 26. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
- ^ Grubben, G.J.H.; Denton, O.A. (2004) Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2. Vegetables. PROTA Foundation, Wageningen; Backhuys, Leiden; CTA, Wageningen.
- ^ Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria (2000). Domestication of plants in the Old World (Third ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-19-850357-6.
- ^ a b c d e Fritsch 2002, pp. 20–21.
- ^ "Allium cepa". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 20 August 2010.
- ^ Fritsch 2002, p. 21.
- ^ Block, E. (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2020.
- ^ "Allium cepa - Plant Finder". www.missouribotanicalgarden.org. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
- ^ "chive (n.)". Online Etymological Dictionary. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
- ^ a b c d e Brickell, Christopher, ed. (1992). The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of Gardening. Dorling Kindersley. p. 345. ISBN 978-0-86318-979-1.
- ^ "Approximate pH Values of Common Foods and Ingredients" (PDF). Wisconsin Food Safety and Health. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
- ^ Anastassakis, Konstantinos (2022). "Allium Cepa (Red Onion)". Androgenetic Alopecia From A to Z. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 465–469. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-08057-9_54. ISBN 978-3-031-08056-2. Retrieved 6 June 2024.
- ^ a b c Cumo, C.E. (2015). Onion. In: Foods that Changed History: How Foods Shaped Civilization from the Ancient World to the Present. ABC-CLIO LLC (American Bibliographic Center, CLIO Press). pp. 248–250. ISBN 9781440835377. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2020.
- ^ a b Ansari, Naser Alemzadeh (2007). "Onion Cultivation and Production in Iran" (PDF). Middle Eastern and Russian Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology. 1 (2): 26–38. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2022 – via Global Science Books.
Onion originated in Iran and its neighboring countries (Hanelt 1990).
- ^ a b c d e f g "History of onions". US National Onion Association, Greeley, CO. 2011. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
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{{cite journal}}
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- ^ Friesen, N.; Klaas, M. (1998). "Origin of some vegetatively propagated Allium crops studied with RAPD and GISH". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 45 (6): 511–523. doi:10.1023/A:1008647700251. S2CID 26205471.
- ^ Brewster, James L. (1994). Onions and other vegetable alliums (1st ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-85198-753-8.
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- ^ Kaur, Harpreet (29 August 2015). "Online onion humour brings tears of joy on Raksha Bandhan". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 14 October 2024.
Sources
- Fritsch, Reinhard M.; Friesen, Nikolai (2002). "Chapter 1: Evolution, Domestication, and Taxonomy". In Rabinowitch, Haim D.; Currah, Lesley (eds.). Allium Crop Science: Recent Advances. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing. doi:10.1079/9780851995106.0005. ISBN 0-85199-510-1. OCLC 228168061. S2CID 189956991.
Further reading
- Block, E. (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9.
- Sen, Colleen T. (2004). Food culture in India. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 0-313-32487-5.
External links
- Media related to Onions in art at Wikimedia Commons
- Onion powder at the Wikibooks Cookbook subproject
- PROTAbase on Allium cepa (archived 1 March 2014)
Allium cepa · Ognon
Règne | Plantae |
---|---|
Sous-règne | Tracheobionta |
Division | Magnoliophyta |
Classe | Liliopsida |
Sous-classe | Liliidae |
Ordre | Liliales |
Famille | Liliaceae |
Genre | Allium |
Ordre | Asparagales |
---|---|
Famille | Amaryllidaceae |
Sous-famille | Allioideae |
L'oignon (prononcé /ɔ.ɲɔ̃/) ou ognon[N 1] (Allium cepa) est une espèce de plantes à fleurs herbacées bisannuelles de la famille des Amaryllidaceae (classification APG III de 2009) ou Liliacées (classification ancienne). Il est largement et depuis longtemps cultivé comme plante potagère pour ses bulbes de saveur et d'odeur fortes ou pour ses feuilles.
Le terme désigne aussi le bulbe de cette plante, consommé comme légume ou comme condiment. Par extension, il désigne parfois familièrement en jardinage les bulbes d'autres plantes, généralement non comestibles et seulement ornementales, de la même famille (par exemple : oignon de tulipe).
Le bulbe de l'oignon se compose de bases épaissies de feuilles s'enveloppant les unes dans les autres.
L'échalote (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) est une variété de l'oignon, elle présente un nombre de points végétatifs par bulbe plus important. La saveur de l'échalote est plus marquée que celle de l’oignon.
Botanique
Description
L'oignon est une plante herbacée, vivace par son bulbe unique, cultivée comme une annuelle ou bisannuelle (floraison la deuxième année). C'est une plante haute de 60 à 100 cm, dont les feuilles de couleur verte sont cylindriques, creuses (ce qui distingue cette espèce du poireau et de l'ail, autres espèces cultivées appartenant aussi au genre Allium). La tige florale dressée est également creuse. Elle présente un renflement vers sa base.
Le bulbe est relativement gros, ovale, globuleux ou aplati, à tuniques extérieures membraneuses et de couleur blanche, jaune, rouge ou violacée[1].
.
Les fleurs petites (de quatre à cinq mm de large), de couleur blanche ou verte, sont regroupées en une ombelle sphérique, en position terminale sur la tige. Les fleurs ont une symétrie trimère, à trois sépales, trois pétales et six étamines. L'ovaire unique est divisé en trois loges. Le fruit est une capsule s'ouvrant par trois valves, libérant chacune généralement deux graines. On peut compter environ 600 fleurs par ombelle.
Chez certaines variétés, il arrive que des bulbilles se développent à la place des fleurs.
Les graines sont noires, anguleuses. Il y a environ 250 graines par gramme. La durée du maintient d'une bonne faculté germinative est relativement faible (deux à trois ans).
Variétés
Plus de 1 000 variétés d'oignons (ou échalions) sont inscrites au Catalogue européen des espèces et variétés[2]. Parmi celles-ci, près de 50 variétés sont inscrites au Catalogue officiel français[3] dont trois sur la liste SVI (Sans Valeur Intrinsèque, auparavant liste des anciennes variétés pour amateurs) et une sur la liste des variétés de conservation « oignon rouge d'Abbeville »[4]. Les nombreuses variétés d'oignons sont généralement classées, du moins en France, selon la couleur du bulbe (liste non exhaustive) :
|
|
Appellations protégées
En France, l'oignon doux des Cévennes a obtenu le label AOC en 2003[6]. L'oignon de Roscoff a reçu ce label le (logo rose avec le sigle blanc de l'Institut national de l'origine et de la qualité dessous)[7]. Les marchands d'oignons rosés de Roscoff qui traversaient chaque année la Manche pour les vendre dans le Sud de la Grande-Bretagne étaient appelés les « Johnnies »[8].
En Espagne, la Cebolla Fuentes de Ebro (es) (oignon des sources de l'Èbre) a fait l'objet d'une demande de classement AOP en 2009[9], accordée fin 2010[10]. L'appellation couvre environ 150 ha sur six municipalités, comprenant les Fuentes de Ebro, situées dans la province de Saragosse (Aragon).
En Italie, le cipollotto nocerino (it) (petit oignon de l'Agro nocerino-sarnese (it) en Campanie) est classé AOP depuis 2008[11] et la Cipolla Rossa di Tropea Calabria (oignon rouge de Tropea - Calabre) est classée IGP également depuis 2008[12].
Histoire
L'oignon provient sans doute d'une espèce sauvage d'Asie centrale[13],[14]. Sa domestication remonte à plusieurs milliers d'années ; elle aurait eu lieu dans la région du Baloutchistan, ou de façon plus large de la Palestine à l'Inde[15].
L'oignon est connu dès l'Antiquité. En Mésopotamie, il figure dans les plus anciennes recettes de cuisine qui soient parvenues à l'époque contemporaine[14]. En Égypte, la culture des oignons est représentée sur des décorations de tombes dès la Ve dynastie. L'oignon est une offrande religieuse que l'on place sur les autels et auprès des morts. Par sa croissance et sa reproduction à la verticale, il symbolise la résurrection solaire. L'oignon est utilisé pour ses propriétés désodorisantes : placé dans la bouche du défunt, il la purifie et « illumine » son visage. L'oignon est associé aux serpents et aux hirondelles. L'oignon est un « anti-serpent » qui les maintient en hibernation tant qu'il reste sous la terre. Le départ des hirondelles indique le moment de semer des oignons, et leur retour le moment de les récolter[16].
L'oignon était apprécié des Grecs, des Gaulois et des Romains et n'a jamais cessé d'être utilisé[17]. Il fait partie des plantes dont la culture est recommandée dans les domaines royaux par Charlemagne dans le capitulaire De Villis (fin du VIIIe siècle ou début du IXe siècle). Le voyageur, chroniqueur et géographe arabe Ibn Hawqal, ayant visité la Sicile au milieu du Xe siècle, s'étonna de voir la consommation quotidienne immodérée d'oignons crus par les Siciliens, et il écrivit à leur sujet :
« […] l'abus qu'ils font de l'oignon et le mauvais goût dérivant de leur habitude de manger excessivement de cet oignon tout cru ; car entre eux il n'y a personne, à quelque classe qu'il appartienne, qui n'en mange tous les jours dans sa maison matin et soir. Voilà ce qui a corrompu leurs intelligences, altéré leurs cerveaux, abruti leurs sens, changé leurs facultés, rétréci leurs esprits, gâté le teint de leurs visages et changé tout à fait leur tempérament, au point qu'ils voient tout, ou du moins la plupart des choses, autrement qu'elles ne sont en réalité[18]. »
La pelure d'oignon était utilisée jadis en musique pour la confection du mirliton, d'où l'un de ses noms : « flûte à l'oignon » (nom utilisé encore aujourd'hui en anglais : onion flute).
Culture
La culture de l'oignon peut être réalisée sous différents climats, notamment tropicaux et tempérés, mais les rendements sont plus élevés dans les régions où l'on observe une alternance des saisons. La germination a alors lieu pendant la saison fraîche et la maturation pendant la saison plus chaude[19].
L'oignon est une plante assez facile à cultiver en climat doux et peu humide[20].
Il préfère les sols légers, sableux, peu argileux et demande une exposition bien ensoleillée. Il convient de respecter un délai de 3 à 5 ans avant d'installer des oignons sur une parcelle où une plante de la même famille (ail, échalote, poireau) a été cultivée les années précédentes. Il craint l'humidité qui provoque l'asphyxie des racines et le pourrissement du bulbe. Il ne faut donc pas l'arroser, sauf au moment de la formation des bulbes et en cas de forte sécheresse. Il demande peu de fumure, éviter d'apporter une fumure organique à l'installation.
Les oignons peuvent être semés ou plantés, sous forme de bulbilles pour les oignons jaunes et sous forme de plants racinés pour les oignons blancs et rouges. Les plants d'oignons sont mis en terre soit au printemps pour une récolte l'été suivant, soit à l'automne pour une récolte au printemps de l'année suivante. Les distances recommandées au Niger sont de 50 cm entre les rangs et de 20 cm entre les bulbes sur le rang[21].
La récolte se fait, selon les variétés et les dates de semis ou de plantation, quand les oignons sont mûrs et que leur feuillage est desséché[22]. Afin de bien les conserver, il faut les faire sécher assez rapidement. Les oignons plus colorés peuvent être conservés longtemps en caisse dans un endroit sec et aéré.
Les jeunes oignons peuvent aussi être récoltés précocement pour être consommés rapidement sous la forme des "petits oignons" de l'expression proverbiale.
Maladies et ravageurs
Principales maladies
- Maladies des semis
- Fonte des semis, causée par plusieurs champignons du sol (Pythium, Fusarium)
- Charbon (Urocystis cepulae)
- Maladies des feuilles
- Mildiou de l'oignon (Peronospora destructor)
- Brûlure de la feuille de l'oignon (Botrytis)
- Maladies des bulbes
- Pourriture blanche (Sclérotiniose)
Principaux ravageurs
- Maladie vermiculaire de l'oignon ou anguillule des tiges (Ditylenchus dipsaci)
- Mouche de l'oignon (Delia antiqua)
Composition
Composé | mg/kg de poids sec
(moyenne des 5 CV) |
Écart moyen | Proportion
% du total |
---|---|---|---|
Aldéhydes | |||
Propanal | 54,2 | 38,6 | 2,1 |
2-Methyl-2-pentenal (de) | 39,4 | 18,1 | 1,5 |
Furfural | 104 | 37,3 | 4 |
5-méthylfurfural | 62,4 | 30,2 | 2,4 |
Sous-total | 260 | 18,5 | |
Composés sulfurés | |||
Propanethiol (en) | 73 | 38,3 | 5,2 |
Propylene sulfide | 39 | 13,6 | 2,8 |
Sulfure de diméthyle | 27,8 | 13 | 2 |
Methyl propyl disulfide | 27,3 | 22,8 | 1,9 |
cis-Methyl-1-propenyl disulfide | 37,1 | 31,9 | 2,6 |
5-Methyl-1,3-thiazole | 19,8 | 1,4 | 1,4 |
trans-Methyl-1-propenyl disulfide | 123,6 | 72, | 8,8 |
3,4-Dimethyl thiophene | 117,5 | 51,4 | 8,4 |
Methyl-2-propenyl disulfide | 27,8 | 30 | 2 |
Dipropyl disulfide | 40,5 | 10 | 2,9 |
1,2,4-Trithiolane (de) | 68,1 | 56,5 | 4,8 |
trans-Propenyl propyl disulfide | 55,9 | 25,9 | 4 |
cis-Propenyl propyl disulfide | 55,8 | 37,9 | 4 |
Methyl propyl trisulfide | 193,5 | 120,9 | 13,8 |
Dipropyl trisulfide | 73,2 | 43,4 | 5,2 |
Sous-total | 979,9 | 69,7 | |
Cétones | |||
1,2-Cyclopentanedione (en) | 45,2 | 26,1 | 3,2 |
Butyrolactone (en) | 57,3 | 6,5 | 4,1 |
Sous-total | 102,5 | 7,3 | |
Autres | |||
Alcool furfurylique | 63,8 | 37,6 | 4,5 |
Total | 1406,2 | 100 |
La couleur de l'oignon rouge est due à des pigments tels que la cyanidine et l'anthocyane ; alors que la quercétine, un flavonoïde, donne la couleur des écailles d'oignon séchées. Les écailles externes sont généralement les plus riches en flavonoïdes et pourraient agir comme moyen de défense contre les prédateurs. En Allemagne, les pelures d'oignons étaient utilisées en famille pour colorer les œufs de Pâques[24].
Des composés phénoliques, tels que le pyrocatéchol et l'acide protocatéchique, se trouvent en plus grande quantité dans l'oignon coloré que dans l'oignon blanc. Ils ont un rôle antioxydant donnant une meilleure résistance aux maladies de l'oignon[24].
Le composant non structurel le plus important de l'oignon est le fructane qui joue un rôle de réserve glucidique et d'osmorégulation lors de la croissance du bulbe[24].
L'oignon contient aussi des pectines utilisées pour la préparation de gelée culinaire et autres produits alimentaires analogues. En médecine vétérinaire, elles sont utilisées comme antidiarrhéique. Plusieurs stérols se trouvent dans l'oignon, le plus courant est le Β-Sitostérol[24].
Utilisation
L'oignon est à la fois un légume et un condiment. Il peut se consommer cru ou cuit, ou également confit au vinaigre. Ses feuilles (jeunes), aromatiques, sont parfois utilisées.
Larmoiement
Couper des oignons (ou bulbes ou feuilles de plantes proches de la même famille) provoque un larmoiement important, à cause de molécules volatiles, très irritantes pour les yeux. L'oignon contient un précurseur, le 1-propényl-L-cystéine-sulfoxyde, qui est accumulé dans le cytoplasme des cellules de l'oignon. Lorsqu'on coupe le bulbe, les parois cellulaires sont brisées et le précurseur rencontre une enzyme : l'alliinase, contenue dans la vacuole de la cellule. Cette enzyme va catalyser l'hydrolyse du précurseur et il se forme plusieurs produits, dont la molécule d'acide 1-propénylsulphénique. Celle-ci se condense spontanément pour former du thiosulfinate, molécule responsable du goût et de l'odeur de l'oignon[25].
Mais l'oignon contient une autre enzyme, que l'on appelle Lacrymal Factor synthase, qui va transformer l'acide 1-propénylsulphénique en molécule de propanethial-S-oxyde, molécule volatile responsable de l'irritation de l'œil. La dispersion de molécules volatiles se fait lors de la coupe des cellules de l'oignon[26].
La saveur de l'oignon résulte essentiellement de l'alliinase qu'il contient, alors que l'effet lacrymogène est dû à l'enzyme LFsynthase. Cela signifie qu'une variété ne faisant pas pleurer peut conserver son goût.
Pour diminuer, voire éviter, le larmoiement, il existe différentes astuces : utiliser des couteaux bien aiguisés, éplucher l'oignon dans un récipient rempli d'eau, utiliser une hotte aspirante[25], protéger les yeux par des lunettes, comme des lunettes de natation. Refroidir ou réchauffer l'oignon permet de ralentir la réaction produisant l'agent lacrymogène, car cette réaction est optimale à température ambiante.
Cuisine
Plus l'oignon est haché finement, plus il cuit rapidement ; il change alors de saveur.
L'oignon rouge est d'un goût plus léger avec sa saveur légèrement plus sucrée que celle de l'oignon jaune. Il est recommandé cru dans les salades et crudités (le cuire le rend plus fade), mais on peut aussi en glisser quelques rondelles dans un burger ou sur une pizza[5].
Conservation
Pour une conservation de longue durée, l'oignon doit être placé dans un endroit sec, à l'abri de la lumière. On peut conserver les récoltes d'oignons dans un entrepôt climatisé, et ayant surtout un taux d'hygrométrie stable, de 75 pour cent. Dans le réfrigérateur, il ne faudrait pas envisager une conservation dépassant une semaine.
Quelques recettes classiques
- Confit d'oignons
- Confiture d'oignons
- Omelette à l'oignon
- Sauce à l'oignon
- Sauce Soubise
- Soupe à l'oignon
- Tarte à l'oignon ou Zwiebelkuchen
- Pissaladière
- Foie de veau à la vénitienne
- Tarte flambée : galette au four garnie de crème et de rondelles d'oignon
- Oignon frit à l'huile
Économie
Les principaux pays producteur en 2019 en tonnes Source FAO | |||
---|---|---|---|
Pays | Oignons secs | Oignons frais, Échalotes |
Total |
Monde | 99 968 016 | 4 491 246 | 104 459 262 |
Chine | 24 966 366 | 1 107 250 | 26 073 616 |
Inde | 22 819 000 | - | 22 819 000 |
États-Unis | 3 170 270 | - | 3 170 270 |
Égypte | 3 081 047 | - | 3 081 047 |
Turquie | 2 200 000 | 142 257 | 2 342 257 |
Pakistan | 2 079 593 | - | 2 079 593 |
Corée du Sud | 1 594 450 | 458 949 | 2 053 399 |
Japon | 1 319 000 | 526 718 | 1 845 718 |
Bangladesh | 1 802 868 | - | 1 802 868 |
Iran | 1 779 457 | - | 1 779 457 |
Russie | 1 670 129 | - | 1 670 129 |
Algérie | 1 613 729 | 371 | 1 614 100 |
Brésil | 1 556 885 | - | 1 556 885 |
Mexique | 1 487 102 | 85 189 | 1 572 231 |
Espagne | 1 458 920 | - | 1 458 920 |
Production en France
En 2017 la production française est de 452 182 tonnes[27]. Les oignons jaunes constituent la plus grande partie de la production. La surface cultivée est de 12 274 hectares, soit un rendement de 36,8 tonnes à l'hectare. Les principaux départements producteurs sont l'Eure-et-Loir, l'Aisne, l'Aube, le Nord et la Somme. Le commerce extérieur français est déficitaire : en 2017, 79 979 tonnes sont exportées tandis que 136 592 tonnes sont importées.
Propriétés médicinales
Selon une étude ethnobotanique et du patois local, faite par Françoise et Grégoire Nicollier à Bagnes (France) et publiée en 1984, l'oignon (Allium cepa) était utilisé (jus sur la peau) pour traiter la piqûre d'abeille, mélangé à du sucre, il soulageait la toux, et mélangé à de l'huile chaude, il traitait les maux d'oreille[28].
Plus facile à conserver que de nombreux fruits riches en vitamine C, l'oignon était autrefois utilisé par les marins pour combattre le scorbut[15]. Les autres vitamines retrouvées dans l'oignon sont les vitamines B1, B2, B3 (ou vitamine PP) et B5, la vitamine A, et la vitamine E[29].
L'oignon a un effet de diminution des taux de cholestérol et de glycémie (réduction de l'hyperglycémie). Les principes actifs responsables seraient le disulfure d'allyle propyle et le diphénylamine[30],[24].
Il peut avoir un faible rôle antibiotique et antifongique par les constituants volatils du jus de bulbe[31].
Toxicité
Lorsqu'il est consommé en grande quantité, l'oignon peut être irritant pour la muqueuse gastrique à cause de ses principes actifs soufrés[30]. Les personnes sensibles peuvent présenter des brûlures d'estomac ou un inconfort digestif, notamment chez les personnes avec iléostomie et chez l'enfant trisomique 21[24].
Par ailleurs, les oignons et leurs déchets sont parfois utilisés en alimentation animale. Dans les régions de grande production d'oignons (par exemple, la Californie), les bulbes de rebut et les déchets, comme les peaux, voire les bulbes invendus, peuvent représenter jusqu'à 20 % du volume récolté et sont alors donnés en quantités importantes aux animaux d'élevage[32].
Or l'ingestion d'oignons moisis, en germination, ou en trop grande quantité même si l'oignon est sain, peut provoquer une toxicose par hémolyse, parfois mortelle, du bétail et des animaux domestiques : chez les bovins et les chevaux, dans une moindre mesure chez les ovins et caprins, également les oies, et les chiens et les chats lorsqu'ils reçoivent des rations contenant trop d'oignon. Les premiers signalements de cette cause de décès datent de 1909[24]. Les symptômes sont notamment une démarche lente et chancelante, une perte d'appétit, un ralentissement de la rumination, un ictère de la conjonctive. Les animaux intoxiqués présentent une anémie hémolytique avec une baisse de l'hématocrite, une hémoglobinurie, et la formation de corps de Heinz dans les érythrocytes[32]
La substance responsable serait le disulfure d'allyle et de propyle[33] qui peut se former à partir des sulfoxydes de S-alkylcystéine présents dans le bulbe frais[34].
Calendrier
Le 3e jour du mois de messidor du calendrier républicain / révolutionnaire français est officiellement dénommé jour de l'oignon[35], généralement chaque 21 juin du calendrier grégorien.
Notes et références
Notes
Références
- Michel Chauvet, Encyclopédie des plantes alimentaires, Belin, , 878 p. (ISBN 978-2-7011-5971-3), p. 37.
- « Catalogue européen des espèces et variétés sur le site de la Commission européenne ».
- « Le Catalogue officiel des espèces et variétés de plantes cultivées en France », sur GEVES (consulté le ).
- Catalogue officiel français sur le site de Semae.
- « Oignon rouge », academiedugout.fr (consulté le ).
- oignon doux des Cévennes
- Jean-Paul Louédoc, « L'oignon de Roscoff : une AOC à croquer », Ouest-France, no 20148, , p. 42.
- « L'histoire des Johnnies et de l'oignon de Roscoff ».
- Fiche Cebolla Fuentes de Ebro sur la base de données DOOR.
- ORDEN de 26 de octubre de 2010, del Consejero de Agricultura y Alimentación, por la que se aprueba la normativa específica de la denominación de origen protegida «Cebolla Fuentes de Ebro», y se concede la protección transitoria, Bulletin officiel de l'Aragon, 18 novembre 2010
- Fiche Cipollotto nocerino sur la base de données DOOR.
- Fiche Cipolla Rossa di Tropea Calabria sur la base de données DOOR.
- Michel Pitrat et Claude Foury, Histoires de légumes : Des origines à l'orée du XXIe siècle, Paris, INRA, , 410 p. (ISBN 2-7380-1066-0), p. 111.
- Éric Birlouez, Petite et grande histoire des légumes, Quæ, coll. « Carnets de sciences », , 175 p. (ISBN 978-2-7592-3196-6, présentation en ligne), Une fabuleuse diversité, « Ail, oignon, échalotte, poireau... Une même famille », p. 66-77.
- (en) Julia Peterson, « The Allium Species (Onions, Garlic, Leeks, Chives, and Shallots) », dans Kenneth F. Kiple (dir.), The Cambridge World History of Food, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, (ISBN 0-521-40214-X), p. 250-251.
- Modèle:Chapittre.
- Élisabeth Lemoine, Guide des légumes du monde, Lausanne, Delachaux et Niestlé, , p. 12.
- Ibn Hawqal, Description de Palerme; traduction française de Michele Amari.
- (en) « Onion Agronomic Principles », sur Yara (consulté le ).
- Jean-Daniel Arnaud, « Oignon, un légume qui n'aime pas l'eau », Le Figaro, (lire en ligne).
- « Guide de bonnes pratiques de production, stockage et conservation de l'oignon », sur Réseau national des chambres d'agriculture du Niger, .
- Les plantes potagères Vilmorin-Andrieux & Cie - 4e édition - 1925 - page 470
- (en) Loredana Liguori et Rosa Califano, « Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Five White Onion (Allium cepa L.) Landraces », sur Journal of Food Quality, (DOI 10.1155/2017/6873651, consulté le )
- (en) Julia Peterson, « The Allium Species (Onions, Garlic, Leeks, Chives, and Shallots) », dans Kenneth F. Kiple (dir.), The Cambridge World History of Food, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-521-40214-X), p. 255-256.
- Pourquoi pleure-t-on en épluchant des oignons ?
- Eric Block: Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge 2010. (ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9)
- Chiffres clés 2017, fruits et légumes. France AgriMer, décembre 2018.
- Françoise Nicollier et Grégoire Nicollier, « Les plantes dans la vie quotidienne à Bagnes : noms patois et utilisations domestiques », Bulletin de la Murithienne, no 102, , p. 129-158 (ISSN 0374-6402, OCLC 716291575, lire en ligne).
- Christiane Vigneau, Plantes médecinales : Thérapeutique - Toxicité, Paris, Masson, (ISBN 2-225-80708-6), p. 224.
- Vigneau 1985, op. cit., p. 42 et 45.
- Vigneau 1985, op. cit., p. 155 et 158.
- (en) Ed DePeters, Birgit Puschner, Jed Asmus and Jennifer Heguy, « Cull onions: A byproduct feedstuff for cattle », sur Progressive Dairyman (consulté le ).
- « Fiche complète pour Disulfure d'allyle et de propyle- CNESST », sur reptox.cnesst.gouv.qc.ca (consulté le )
- Jean Bruneton, Plantes toxiques, végétaux dangereux pour l'Homme et les animaux, Paris/Cachan, Tec & Doc Lavoisier, , 3e éd., 618 p. (ISBN 2-7430-0806-7), p. 407-408.
- Ph. Fr. Na. Fabre d'Églantine, Rapport fait à la Convention nationale dans la séance du 3 du second mois de la seconde année de la République Française, p. 28.
Annexes
Articles connexes
Références taxinomiques
- (en) Référence JSTOR Plants : Allium cepa (consulté le )
- (en) Référence Catalogue of Life : Allium cepa L. (consulté le )
- (en) Référence Flora of North America : Allium cepa (consulté le )
- (en) Référence Flora of China : Allium cepa (consulté le )
- (en) Référence Flora of Pakistan : Allium cepa (consulté le )
- (en) Référence FloraBase (Australie-Occidentale) : classification Allium cepa (+ photos + répartition + description) (consulté le )
- (en) Référence GRIN : espèce Allium cepa L. (consulté le )
- (fr) Référence INPN : Allium cepa L., 1753 (TAXREF) (consulté le )
- (fr + en) Référence ITIS : Allium cepa L. (consulté le )
- (en) Référence World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP) : Allium cepa L. (1753) (consulté le )
Liens externes
- Ressources relatives au vivant :
- Australian Plant Name Index
- Base de données des plantes d'Afrique
- BioLib
- Calflora
- Catalogue of Life in Taiwan
- Dyntaxa
- Ecocrop
- EPPO Global Database
- European Nature Information System
- Flora Catalana
- Flora of China
- Flora of North America
- Flora of Wisconsin
- FloraBase
- FloraWeb
- Germplasm Resources Information Network
- Global Biodiversity Information Facility
- iNaturalist
- Info Flora
- Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera
- International Plant Names Index
- Jardin botanique du Missouri
- Michigan Flora
- Nálezová databáze ochrany přírody
- NBN Atlas
- NDFF Verspreidingsatlas
- Nederlands Soortenregister
- New Zealand Organisms Register
- PalDat
- The Plant List
- PLANTS Database
- Plants For A Future
- Plants of the World Online
- Portale della Flora d'Italia
- Système d'information taxonomique intégré
- TAXREF (INPN)
- Tela Botanica
- Tropicos
- World Checklist of Selected Plant Families
- Ressource relative à la santé :
- Notices dans des dictionnaires ou encyclopédies généralistes :
- (en) Référence NCBI : Allium cepa (taxons inclus) (consulté le )
- (en) Référence The Plant List : Allium cepa L. (source : KewGarden WCSP) (consulté le )
- (en) Référence Tropicos : Allium cepa L. (+ liste sous-taxons) (consulté le )
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