Wellness

For the short-lived British television channel, see Wellbeing (TV channel).

Positive interpersonal relationships contribute to well-being.

Well-being is what is ultimately good for a person. Also called "welfare" and "quality of life", it is a measure of how well life is going for someone. Well-being is what egoists typically seek for themselves and altruists work to enhance in others, serving as a central goal of many individual and societal endeavors.

Researchers discuss different types of well-being by how they are measured, who they belong to, and which domain of life they affect. Subjective well-being refers to how a person feels about and evaluates their life. Objective well-being encompasses factors that can be assessed from an external perspective, such as health, income, and security. Individual well-being concerns the quality of life of a particular person, whereas community well-being measures how well a group of people functions and thrives. Forms of well-being belonging to specific domains of life include physical, psychological, emotional, social, and economic well-being.

Theories of well-being aim to identify its essential features. Hedonism argues that well-being ultimately depends on the balance of pleasure over pain. Desire theories hold that the satisfaction of desires is the source of well-being. According to objective list theories, a combination of diverse elements is responsible. Often-discussed contributing factors include feelings, emotions, life satisfaction, achievement, finding meaning, interpersonal relationships, and health.

Well-being is relevant to many fields of inquiry. Positive psychology studies the factors and conditions of optimal human functioning. Philosophy examines the nature and theoretical foundations of well-being and its role as a goal of human conduct. Other related disciplines include economics, sociology, anthropology, medicine, education, politics, and religion. Even though the philosophical study of well-being dates back millennia, research in the empirical sciences has only intensified since the second half of the 20th century.

Definition

Well-being is what is ultimately good for a person or in their self-interest. It is a measure of how well a person's life is going for them. In the broadest sense, the term covers the whole spectrum of quality of life: the balance of all positive and negative things in a person's life. More narrowly, well-being refers only to positive degrees and contrasts with ill-being, which denotes negative degrees. The precise definition of well-being is disputed and varies across disciplines and cultures. Some characterizations focus on a single element, like happiness, while others include multiple components, such as good physical and mental health, positive emotions, an engaged and flourishing lifestyle, inner harmony, and positive interpersonal relationships. Some definitions additionally include material conditions, such as income, safety, and low pollution. Outside the academic context, the term well-being is used more loosely in diverse social and cultural settings, typically as a synonym of health and happiness. Although discussions of well-being usually focus on humans, the term can also refer to the quality of life of non-human animals.

As a person-specific value, well-being contrasts with impersonal value or value simpliciter. A thing has impersonal value if it is good for the world at large by making it a better place, without being restricted to one specific person. Well-being, by contrast, is what is good for or relative to someone. While personal and impersonal values often align, they can diverge, for example, if an individual seeks a personal gain that is bad from a wider perspective. The exact relation between these two types of value is disputed. According to one proposal, impersonal value is the sum of all personal values.

Well-being is typically understood as an intrinsic or final value, meaning that it is good in itself, independent of external factors. Things with instrumental value, by contrast, are only good as means leading to other good things, like the value of money. Well-being is further distinguished from moral, religious, and aesthetic values, which describe what is ethically right, sacred, or beautiful. Well-being may or may not overlap with other values. For instance, donating money to a charity may be morally good, even if it does not increase the donor's well-being.

The terms quality of life, good life, welfare, prudential value, personal good, and individual utility are often used as synonyms of well-being. Similarly, the words pleasure, life satisfaction, and happiness are employed in overlapping ways with well-being. However, their precise meanings differ in technical contexts like philosophy and psychology: pleasure refers to individual feelings about what is attractive; life satisfaction is a positive attitude a person has towards their life as a whole; happiness is sometimes identified with life satisfaction or understood as a positive balance of pleasure over pain.

Well-being is a crucial goal of many human endeavors, both on individual and societal levels. Various attitudes and emotions are directed at well-being, like caring for someone or experiencing pity, envy, and ill will. Well-being is the state that egoists seek for themselves and altruists aim to increase for others. Many disciplines examine or are guided by considerations of well-being, including ethics, psychology, sociology, economics, education, public policy, law, and medicine. The word well-being comes from the Italian term benessere. It entered the English language in the 16th century.

Types

Since the definition of well-being spans several dimensions, researchers have proposed various frameworks to capture its different forms. Types of well-being can be categorized by how they are measured, who they belong to, and which domain of life they affect. Some researchers limit their inquiry to one specific type while others investigate the interrelations among them.

Subjective and objective well-being

Subjective well-being is the measure of how people feel about and evaluate their lives, encompassing both affective and cognitive components. A person has high affective well-being if they have many pleasant experiences and few unpleasant ones. High cognitive well-being occurs when a person evaluates their life positively, making a global assessment that things are going well.

Subjective well-being is measured using questionnaires in which individuals report the quality of their experiences. Single-item measures provide the most simple approach, focusing on a single scale, like asking participants to rate how content they are with their lives on a scale from 1 to 10. Multi-item scales include questions for distinct aspects of subjective well-being, with the advantage of reducing the influence of the wording of any single question. They have separate questions for domains such as the presence of positive affects, the absence of negative affects, and overall life satisfaction, which they combine into a comprehensive index.

Objective well-being encompasses objective factors indicating that a person's life is going well. Unlike subjective well-being, these factors can be assessed and quantified from an external perspective. They include personal, social, economic, and environmental aspects such as health, level of education, income, housing, amount of leisure time, and security.

By relying on objective data, measures of objective well-being are less affected by cultural and personal biases that can influence self-reports. However, it is not universally accepted that objective well-being is a form of well-being in the strictest sense. This doubt is based on the idea that well-being is essentially a subjective phenomenon tied to a person's experience. According to this view, objective factors influence and indicate well-being but are not themselves forms of well-being.

Some studies focus on either subjective or objective well-being. Others combine both perspectives in their investigation to provide a more comprehensive picture and counterbalance their shortcommings. Although subjective and objective well-being often align, this is not necessarily the case. For example, a person scoring low on objective measures, like low income and frail health, may nonetheless be subjectively happy.

Individual and community well-being

The distinction between individual and community well-being is central for understanding how societies flourish at different levels and for evaluating trade-offs in policy decisions. Individual well-being concerns the quality of life of a particular person and is the main focus of disciplines like psychology and some schools of philosophy. Community well-being applies the concept of well-being to a group of people. It encompasses a broad range of economic, social, environmental, and cultural aspects that influence how the community functions and thrives while ensuring that the community's needs are fulfilled.

One view sees community well-being as the sum of individual well-beings while others emphasize that the relation between the two is more complex. Individual and community well-being often support each other. For instance, high individual well-being can lead a person to contribute more to their community, and a well-functioning community can make its members happy. However, there can also be tensions, like when changes necessary for community well-being conflict with the individual well-being of certain members.

Closely related to community well-being are categories defined for specific demographic groups. For instance, child well-being is about the quality of life of children, including factors such as health, education, material security, and social development in a loving and nurturing environment. Other examples include women's, elderly, student, and employee well-being.

Other types

Various types are distinguished by the domain of life to which they belong. Physical well-being concerns the domain of the body as the capacity to engage in physical activities and the absence of illness and bodily pain. It includes general health considerations and the ability to perform one's social role without being hindered by physical limitations.

Psychological well-being, also called mental health, is a state of mind characterized by internal balance. It involves the absence or successful management of disorders and disturbances, together with the abilities to cope with challenging situations, maintain positive relationships, and cultivate personal growth. It is closely linked to intellectual, spiritual, and emotional well-being. Intellectual well-being encompasses well-functioning cognitive abilities and traits, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and curiosity. Spiritual well-being is a state in which people find purpose in life and have inner peace, self-confidence, and a sense of identity. Emotional well-being involves the capacities to comprehend, articulate, and regulate emotions, together with an overall positive mood.

Hedonic well-being refers to a life rich in pleasurable experiences and devoid of suffering. Eudaimonic well-being is a form of personal fulfillment in which an individual flourishes by striving for excellence and actualizing their innate potentials.

Social well-being concerns the quality and number of interpersonal connections, including how well a person functions in their social environment and the level of social support available to them. Economic well-being refers to the economic situation of a person, such as their current employment situation, job opportunities, financial stability, and other relevant resources and skills. Further types of well-being include financial, cultural, political, and environmental well-being.

Theories of well-being

Theories of well-being aim to identify the essential features or components that different forms of well-being have in common. They focus on the intrinsic nature of well-being, contrasting with external causes or conventional indicators used to measure it. For example, money and medicine can contribute to well-being as external causes but are not themselves forms of well-being. A traditionally influential approach categorizes theories of well-being into hedonism, desire theories, and objective list theories. This classification does not cover all theories, and the different categories are not always mutually exclusive. In some cases, distinct theories recommend different lifestyles, while in others, they advocate for the same lifestyle but provide different reasons for why it is good.

Hedonism

Epicurus (341–270 BCE) proposed a moderate hedonism, recommending the cultivation of well-being in the form of a tranquil state of mind through moderation.

Hedonism about well-being, also called prudential hedonism, holds that pleasure and pain are the only factors of well-being. It states that how well a life goes for a person depends entirely on how it feels to live this life, expressed as the balance of pleasure over pain. According to this view, a person who experiences frequent joy and contentment has high well-being, whereas someone who is constantly in pain and suffering has low well-being. One view sees pleasure and pain as bodily sensations, like the pleasure of eating delicious food and the pain of injuring a leg. However, hedonists generally take a wider perspective, characterizing pleasure and pain broadly as any experience that feels good or bad. This broader understanding includes the intellectual pleasure of reading an engaging book and the sorrow of losing a loved one. According to quantitative hedonism, the value of each episode of pleasure and pain depends only on its intensity and duration. Qualitative hedonism, an alternative perspective, additionally considers non-quantitative factors, arguing that some pleasures are intrinsically superior to others because of their qualitative character even if they have the same intensity and duration.

One criticism of hedonism acknowledges that some pleasures have value but rejects that this is the case for all of them. According to this view, certain pleasures have no value and may even be bad for a person, such as sadistic pleasures from torturing animals. Another objection questions whether pleasure is the only thing of value for individuals, citing things like virtue, achievement, friendship, and the satisfaction of desires as distinct sources. An influential counterexample to hedonism, proposed by philosopher Robert Nozick (1938–2002), imagines an experience machine that simulates a life filled with pleasures, which would be ideal from the perspective of hedonism. Pointing out that life in this virtual simulation lacks authenticity, Nozick argues that mere pleasure by itself is not the only source of value.

Desire theories

According to desire theories, the satisfaction of desires is the only source of well-being. This means that individuals have well-being when they get what they want. Desires are subjective attitudes directed at things or states, like the desire to eat potato chips or become famous. Desires present conditions that are either fulfilled or frustrated depending on whether the desired state of affairs is actualized. Desire theories have some overlap with hedonism because people desire pleasure and the satisfaction of desires is typically pleasurable. However, desire theorists argue that people may desire other goods besides pleasures, emphasizing the diversity of desires and the individual differences from one person to another. For instance, some people prioritize family and health, while others primarily seek career success, wealth, knowledge, or spiritual enlightenment. As a result, the concrete path to well-being can vary greatly from person to person based on their subjective preferences.

Critics of desire theories point out that people sometimes desire things that are bad for them. For example, a child's desire to eat nothing but candy could lead to serious health problems and diminish well-being rather than increase it. In response, some modified versions of desire theories have been proposed to avoid this counterexample. They argue that only the satisfaction of well-informed desires contributes to well-being, excluding desires in which individuals do not fully consider or understand the negative consequences. Another objection holds that desire satisfaction is only good in a derivative sense. It asserts that a person desires something because they believe that it is good, meaning that the value primarily resides in the desired object rather than in the satisfaction of the desire.

Objective list theories

Objective list theories state that a person's well-being depends on several different factors. These factors can include subjective components, like pleasure and desire-satisfaction, but also encompass objective factors that enhance a person's well-being independent of whether they subjectively care about them. Objective list theorists have proposed diverse lists of items to cover a wide variety of elements contributing to well-being, such as health, friendship, achievement, knowledge, and autonomy. Some versions argue that each element on the list is valuable by itself, while others hold that they complement each other and only promote well-being when combined.

One criticism of objective list theories asserts that they define an incoherent concept of well-being by including diverse elements that have little in common. Another objection challenges the proposed objectivity of objective list theories, arguing that well-being is essentially a subjective phenomenon. According to this view, what is good for a person depends on their subjective attitude, and imposing an external definition of what is good leads to alienation.

Others

One categorization distinguishes between subjectivist, objectivist, and hybrid theories. Subjectivist theories understand well-being as a purely subjective phenomenon characterized by the individual's own perspective, mental states, and attitudes. Objectivist theories rely only on objective factors in their definition, like health and achievement. Hybrid theories incorporate both subjective and objective components. For example, one version states that well-being consists in the subjective appreciation of objective goods.

A further distinction is between monist and pluralist theories. Monist theories hold that a single good is responsible for well-being, meaning that all types of well-being share the same essential features. Pluralist theories see well-being as a diverse phenomenon that manifests in many forms without a single essence characteristic of all of them. For instance, objective list theories are pluralist views, whereas hedonism and desire theories are monist views.

Eudaimonism has its roots in ancient philosophy, with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) as one of its main proponents.

Perfectionism identifies well-being with excellence by fulfilling human nature. It holds that one needs to exercise and master key human abilities, such as rationality, knowledge, health, and dignity, in order to live well. As an objectivist perspective, perfectionism asserts that the value of these goods does not depend on what a person thinks about them. Eudaimonism is a closely related view, asserting that someone has high well-being or flourishes in life by actualizing their inborn potentials. This view emphasizes that well-being is not a passive state but an active process. It manifests in an engaged lifestyle where individuals exercise virtues and rely on practical rationality to guide their decision-making.

Value fulfillment theories see the satisfaction of evaluative attitudes as the basis of well-being. They are similar to desire theories, which focus on desire satisfaction. However, value fulfillment theories adopt a broader perspective that considers diverse evaluative attitudes in addition to desires, such as beliefs, feelings, and judgments about what is good.

Most theories assume that the definition of well-being applies equally to everyone. Variabilism rejects this assumption and argues that different conceptions of well-being apply to different individuals. One form of variabilism asserts that the nature of well-being in children differs from that in adults. Similarly, some theories of well-being are species-relative, proposing that the essential features of well-being vary across distinct species, for example, that the well-being of humans differs from the well-being of non-human animals.

Components and contributing factors

Main article: Well-being contributing factors

To avoid the deep disagreements surrounding the theories of the essential features of well-being, some researchers examine components and contributing factors independent of whether they are integral parts or external causes. For example, there is wide agreement that positive emotions, achievements, interpersonal relationships, and health typically contribute to well-being in some form, despite academic disagreements about their precise roles.

Feelings, emotions, and life satisfaction

Diagram of the percentage of people of the world population that reported different levels of life satisfaction in the Gallup World Poll 2015–2017. For example, 25.3 % reported a neutral life satisfaction of 5 in a scale from 0 to 10.

Pleasure promotes well-being as a positive feeling about what is attractive. Pain, by contrast, diminishes well-being as a negative feeling about what is aversive. Pleasure and pain are closely tied to the brain's reward system, influencing motivation and behavior by reinforcing beneficial actions and discouraging harmful ones. They shape how individuals perceive their lives and interact with their social and physical environments. Pleasure and pain are commonly seen as opposites that counterbalance each other. This view suggests that the negative value of experiencing intense pain can be compensated by the positive value of experiencing intense pleasure. A different perspective argues that their relation is more complex since they influence experience, motivation, and well-being in distinct ways that are not always symmetrical. Following this idea, one view holds that avoiding pain is more important than seeking pleasure.

Pleasure and pain are often tied to emotions, which are temporary states of arousal, such as joy, hope, anger, and fear. Emotions include subjective experiences of pleasure and pain alongside other psychological phenomena, such as the evaluative assessment of a situation and a disposition to engage in certain types of behavior. For example, fear evaluates a situation as dangerous and is associated with a behavioral disposition to flee. Additionally, emotions are linked to physiological changes, like sweating, and bodily expressions that signal the emotional state to others. High well-being is associated with frequent positive emotions and infrequent negative ones. Despite their unpleasantness, negative emotions are nonetheless integral to healthy functioning by making people aware of problems and steering behavior away from harmful outcomes. Emotions are closely related to moods, which usually last longer and have a less specific origin and evaluative assessment, such as cheerfulness, serenity, boredom, and depression. Moods typically shape well-being in more subtle ways by coloring perception and motivation over time, often without becoming the primary focus of attention.

Life satisfaction is the subjective judgment of a person about how well their life is going. As a comprehensive evaluation, it is not limited to one particular domain, like employment or financial status. Instead, it considers all relevant areas of life. Similarly, it is not restricted to how a person currently feels but encompasses a long-term assessment of one's life as a whole across time. For example, a person may be overall satisfied with their life even if they are experiencing intense stomach pain at the moment. Individuals vary in how they arrive at their judgment of life satisfaction. For instance, some rely on instinctive gut feelings while others engage in deliberate and systematic reflections. Sometimes, individuals make inaccurate assessments and deceive themselves about their true quality of life, like cases of false happiness.

Achievements and meaning

Researchers also examine how achievements and accomplishments promote well-being, often by focusing on the sustained effort involved in setting a goal considered valuable and striving to actualize it. Achievements take many forms such as earning an educational degree, attaining athletic success, contributing to scientific research, writing a well-received novel, starting a successful company, and bringing up a happy family. The contribution of achievements to well-being depends not only on their quantity but also on their significance. For example, a difficult achievement that helps many people, like finding a cure for cancer, may contribute more to the achiever's well-being than a trivial and pointless achievement, like determining the exact number of crumbs in a cookie jar. High achievement typically has a positive influence on other factors of well-being. For example, it can help a person make more friends and improve their standard of living. In some cases, however, it has negative side effects, like when an obsession with success increases anxiety and alienates loved ones.

Finding meaning in life is a closely related factor of well-being. A sense of purpose can organize a person's life and daily activities, motivate them to keep striving in the face of hardship, and produce positive emotions as they progress toward goals they consider valuable. It involves a judgment about the role and value of one's life in a wider context, but its precise characterization is disputed. Subjectivists argue that meaning is a subjective phenomenon. They suggest that people actively create it and make their lives meaningful by dedicating themselves to what they love. Objectivists contend that meaning does not depend on subjective preferences but is grounded in objective features of reality. Some people seek meaning by promoting concrete general values, like truth, moral goodness, and beauty. Others pursue it in religious practice by trying to realize a supernatural purpose. Further suggested sources of meaning include altruism, creativity, and self-actualization. The inability to find meaning in life can lead to an existential crisis, associated with anxiety and spiritual confusion.

Friendship and other relationships

Friendship tends to promote well-being.

Positive social connections and interactions are further key elements of well-being. In addition to the intrinsic joy of engaging with others, social networks can offer material and emotional assistance during challenging times. They help people build trust, share values, promote the exchange of information, and provide access to new opportunities. Different types of social relationships may influence well-being in different ways, such as the contrasts between friends, family members, romantic partners, co-workers, and teammates.

Researchers often focus specifically on the connection between friendship and well-being. Friendship is a voluntary social relationship between people characterized by mutual concern, trust, and support. Friends tend to spend time with each other, enjoy each other's company, and know personal facts about one another. Friendship can promote emotional support, a sense of belonging, self-esteem, practical guidance, and reduced stress. Different forms of friendship can influence well-being differently. A central aspect is the strength of the connection, distinguishing close friends from distant ones. Strength is determined by factors such as time spent together, trust, emotional intensity, and readiness to support each other in difficult times. The number of friends a person has is another relevant factor, and having many friends is usually beneficial. However, if a person already has numerous friends, making even more friends may not significantly impact their well-being. Some people prefer large friend networks with looser connections, while others have few but strong friendships.

Health and disabilities

Main articles: Health and Disability

Health can play a central role in how people live their lives, reflecting the overall condition in which an organism functions as it should, both physically and mentally. Good physical health is associated with high energy and the ability to perform everyday activities. Physical illnesses and disabilities can negatively impact well-being by causing pain, limiting mobility, and reducing the capacity to engage in enjoyable or necessary activities. Good mental health is a state of internal equilibrium in which mental capacities work the way they should. Mental disorders are associated with some form of psychological impairment: they typically disrupt the equilibrium by causing distress and may limit the activities a person can engage in. Discrimination can amplify the negative effects of socially stigmatized illnesses and disabilities.

Despite its general impact, health does not fully determine happiness and some individuals affected by severe illnesses and disabilities report high levels of subjective well-being. The availability of healthcare services can mitigate negative effects by providing treatments to restore health or manage and alleviate symptoms. Similarly, adopting a healthy lifestyle, like regular physical activity and a balanced diet, is associated with long-term benefits to well-being.

Other components

Thought patterns can influence well-being positively or negatively by shaping how the world is interpreted and experienced. For example, frequent negative thoughts about past events can trigger anxiety and depressive moods. Accordingly, various psychotherapeutic and religious schools of thought propose methods and practices to promote thought patterns conducive to well-being. For example, a key element of cognitive behavior therapy is the identification and reframing of automatic negative thoughts, while various eastern religious traditions, such as Buddhism, recommend meditation and mindfulness. Related mental factors of well-being include tendencies through which people act against their own self-interest, such as impaired self-control in the form of addictions, and cognitive biases leading to irrational decisions.

Philosophers examine how knowledge affects well-being, like when knowledge helps people avoid dangers or solve problems. It is controversial whether all forms of knowledge contribute to well-being, such as the contrast between trivial knowledge of unimportant facts and practically relevant knowledge about oneself or deep insights into general truths of the world. In addition to knowledge, many related epistemic goods contribute to well-being, such as intelligence, problem-solving skills, creativity, open-mindedness, understanding, and wisdom. The value of epistemic goods is reflected in the emphasis given to education to foster the development of the minds of students. Education helps individuals understand and master their environment, promoting well-being by opening up new opportunities and increasing people's control over their lives.

Autonomy and freedom are often-discussed factors of well-being. They concern the possibility to choose, the ability to make informed decisions without coercion, and the capacity to act without being constrained by external forces. Individuals with a high level of autonomy and freedom tend to be more satisfied by having control over their lives. This enables them to decide between important options and choose a life that reflects their desires, preferences, and values. However, these conditions may not automatically lead to well-being and can sometimes have negative consequences. For example, a person lacking mental maturity and wisdom may freely engage in short-sighted pleasures with instant gratification while ignoring negative long-term consequences.

Eudaimonic conceptions of well-being stress the importance of character traits and virtues. Character traits are stable and consistent aspects of personality that influence how people think, feel, and act. Traits associated with well-being include wisdom, courage, kindness, justice, temperance, and gratitude. Virtues are character traits that promote ethical excellence, such as dispositions to act morally and follow ethical principles. Virtue-based theories of well-being argue that virtue can be its own reward, for example, because living a morally upright life can be a fulfilling experience. However, virtue and well-being may also conflict in some cases, for instance, when altruistic service to a greater good requires personal sacrifice.

Genetic makeup can significantly impact the general level of well-being, as evidenced by findings that the life satisfaction of identical twins is more alike than the life satisfaction of non-identical twins.

Various work-related elements impact overall well-being, such as the character of the work performed, income, job security, work-life balance, and personal relationships to coworkers and superiors. Job loss and unemployment are associated with a decrease of well-being because of factors such as financial strain of lost wages, weakened social connections, and a reduced sense of purpose and social status. The government and political situation, another determinant, influences the happiness of the population by affecting security, equality, social services, and a general trust in society. Accordingly, governments that uphold the rule of law, provide good services, and control corruption tend to foster higher levels of well-being. Opportunities to democratically participate in political decision-making are also linked to increased well-being. Similarly, the physical environment plays a role, with factors like housing conditions, pollution, noise, and access to nature and recreational areas.

The genetic makeup can significantly impact the general level of a person's well-being, with some studies suggesting that genetic influences can explain up to one third of the differences in subjective well-being. For example, the life satisfaction of identical twins, who share genes, is more alike than the life satisfaction of non-identical twins. Other relevant biological factors include neurotransmitters and hormones.

Well-being changes throughout the lifespan as individuals transition from childhood through adolescence and adulthood to old age, reflecting factors such as educational and occupational responsibilities, family life, financial stability, and health. Well-being tends to decline from childhood until around age 40 globally. There are region-specific differences for the second part of life: some regions see a further decline towards old age, while the level remains stable in others and increases in some. There is little gender difference in well-being in most countries.

Digital technologies, such as the internet and artificial intelligence, influence the well-being of individuals in various areas, such as information access, social relationships, work-life balance, and health. The effects are mixed, including benefits, like new learning opportunities, and risks, like social media addiction. In many areas, a proper understanding of the uses and dangers of a technology is essential for avoiding their potential harmful effects.

Models

According to Ed Diener's tripartite model, subjective well-being consists of frequent positive affects, infrequent negative affects, and life satisfaction.

Models of well-being are frameworks for understanding and measuring well-being. They clarify its nature and seek to show how its different components and contributing factors interact. Psychologist Ed Diener's tripartite model identifies three essential components of subjective well-being: the presence of positive affects, the absence of negative affects, and a positive evaluation of one's life as a whole. Psychologist Carol Ryff proposed the six-factor model of psychological well-being. It states that the main elements are self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy, and positive relations with others. Focusing on social well-being, sociologist Corey Keyes developed a five-component model based on social integration, social contribution, social coherence, social actualization, and social acceptance.

According to Martin Seligman's PERMA theory, well-being has five elements: positive emotions, engagement by following one's interests, interpersonal relationships, finding meaning in life, and accomplishments in the pursuit of success and mastery. Psychologist Michael Bishop developed the network model of well-being, which includes components such as feelings, emotions, attitudes, traits, and interactions with one's environment. This model emphasizes that the different components form a causal network by influencing and reinforcing each other in complex ways.

In various fields

As a central goal of many individual and societal endeavors, well-being is relevant to many fields of inquiry. Grouped under the umbrella term science of well-being, some disciplines investigate the nature and components of well-being directly, while others study its causes, effects, or correlates in specific domains of life. A central motivation of academic inquiry is the belief that well-being can be improved through appropriate measures. Some of these measures focus on individual lifestyle changes. Others take the form of societal interventions to alter how economic, medical, educational, workplace, and political institutions function.

Positive psychology

Main article: Positive psychology

Martin Seligman is one of the founding fathers of positive psychology.

Positive psychology is the branch of psychology dedicated to the study of well-being and related phenomena, like happiness and flourishing. It examines the factors and conditions of optimal human functioning. This inquiry focuses both on individual factors, like the experience of pleasure and pain and the role of character traits, and on societal factors, such as the way social institutions influence human well-being.

On the emotional level, positive psychologists examine the different types of positive emotions, such as joy, amusement, and love. They seek to understand the conditions under which positive emotions arise, how they contribute to overall well-being, and how they differ from negative emotions. On the cognitive level, positive psychology studies how intelligence, wisdom, and creativity improve quality of life. It further explores the relation between cognitive and affective processes, for example, how cognitive interpretations evoke emotions and how emotions prompt thought processes.

Another central subfield concerns the role of personality, in particular, how individuals differ regarding personality traits and how these traits impact well-being. The VIA model, an influential framework in positive psychology, analyzes personality based on six main virtues: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. A closely related topic focuses on the role of the self, which encompasses the way a person conceptualizes and imagines themselves. Important factors for well-being are self-esteem, or how a person evaluates themselves, and authenticity, or the degree to which a person's behavior is subjectively consistent with their sense of self. A further area explores the role of social and physical circumstances. This includes the effects of trust and cooperation on group well-being and dilemmas in which self-interest conflicts with group interest. Having close relationships and engaging in altruistic behavior are generally beneficial to a person's well-being.

In addition to the study of the different components and causes of well-being, positive psychologists seek to understand how well-being changes over time. For example, they examine the effects of major negative events, like the death of a child or bankruptcy, and the psychological features that help some people maintain their level of well-being despite significant adversity, like self-regulation and an optimistic outlook. Another key topic is the problem of interventions or how to design and implement methods to reliably increase well-being. Researchers explore a wide range of strategies, including cognitive reframing, cultivating gratitude, acts of kindness toward others, and different forms of meditation. The possibility of creating long-term gains in well-being is challenged by the set-point theory—the hypothesis that each person has a stable level of subjective well-being. It suggests that this level is mostly fixed by factors that are hereditary or determined early in life, implying that any change to well-being is only temporary and will eventually revert back to the individual's baseline.

Philosophy

While positive psychologists focus on empirical research of specific factors, philosophers give more emphasis to the general nature, overall function, and conceptual foundations of well-being. They explore its essential features by developing and comparing theories of well-being, such as hedonistic theories, desire theories, and objective list theories. Philosophers also investigate the foundational principles of the scientific study of well-being. Considering that well-being has both subjective and evaluative aspects, they seek to determine whether scientific objectivity is possible and to what extent well-being can be quantified and compared between individuals.

Some philosophers challenge the concept of well-being, understood as what is ultimately good for someone. For instance, philosopher G. E. Moore (1873–1958) rejects the idea that something can be good relative to a person, asserting instead that all values are impersonal. Another criticism suggests that the concept of well-being is incoherent, arguing that it groups together diverse elements without a shared essence.

Despite these criticisms, well-being plays a central role in ethics and value theory. Welfarism is the view that well-being is the only basic source of value. It holds that everything else, like intelligence and health care, is only valuable to the extent that it promotes well-being and reduces ill-being. Pure welfarists argue that the raw sum of everyone's well-being is all that matters. Impure welfarists consider additional factors, such as ensuring that well-being is distributed equally among people. This modification aims to avoid situations in which some people have abundantly good lives at the expense of others who experience severe deprivation.

Another topic concerns the relation between moral virtue and well-being. According to one view, already considered in ancient Greek philosophy, the two always accompany each other, meaning it is in everyone's self-interest to act virtuously. An alternative perspective denies this close connection, stating that, at least in some cases, a virtuous person has to compromise their own well-being for the greater good. Philosophers further explore the relation between well-being and death. One position questions the common-sense idea that death is generally bad for a person. It argues that since death marks the end of a person's existence, there is nothing that can benefit or harm the person anymore. Animal ethicists apply the concept of well-being to non-human animals, examining what animal well-being consists in and how it affects the moral obligations of humans toward non-human animals. Commonly discussed factors of animal well-being include adequate food, shelter, and social interaction, and the fulfillment of species-specific needs.

Other fields

Welfare economics studies the influence of economic activity on well-being. One of its primary goals is to develop standards for evaluating and choosing between competing policy proposals based on their potential benefit to well-being. This field uses metrics such as distribution of income, gross domestic product, consumer surplus, and compensating variation. For example, distributing income more equally is usually beneficial for well-being but needs to be balanced against potential negative side effects, such as a decline in productivity. The economics of happiness, a closely related field, focuses specifically on the connection between economic phenomena and individual happiness. One of its findings is the Easterlin paradox: within a given country, people with higher income tend to be happier than those with lower income, yet overall happiness does not trend upward as the average income of everyone increases.

The World Happiness Index (2023) measures levels of happiness worldwide.

The growing academic interest in well-being is also reflected in the political sphere, challenging the gross domestic product as the main indicator of national success. As a result, indices to track, compare, and promote the well-being of populations have been established at both national and international levels. Examples include the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, Bhutan's Gross National Happiness, and the UK Measures of National Well-being. Following this trend, policymakers are relying on well-being metrics and related factors to inform their decision-making processes. For instance, they may use the WELLBY scale to quantify how policy decisions influence the well-being of large populations. The study of well-being also affects the field of law, where considerations about how to protect and promote well-being can influence legislation.

Sociologists examine the relation between well-being and social phenomena, such as race, socioeconomic status, and education. They use both subjective and objective metrics, with some studies dedicated to well-being in general, while others focus on specific domains, such as work, family, and housing, or on particular demographic groups, such as employees or the elderly.

Anthropologists are interested in the concept of well-being in different cultures. They seek to understand what people at different times and places associate with a good life, such as the culture-specific norms, values, and practices for achieving personal well-being. A key assumption in this field is that the concept of well-being involves a commitment to what is desirable, functioning as an evaluative framework for guiding behavior and assessing lifestyles. Anthropologists compare these commitments and frameworks across different cultures, like the differences between Western and non-Western conceptions of well-being. They describe the similarities and differences, typically without taking a position on which view is superior.

According to Laozi's Taoism, well-being is achieved by acting in harmony with nature.

Diverse perspectives on well-being are found in religious and other traditional belief systems, where well-being often serves as a goal of spiritual practice. In various traditional forms of Hinduism, the highest kind of well-being is not determined by objective external conditions. Instead, it depends primarily on experiential knowledge of the self, brought about through practices like self-inquiry and meditation. Buddhism identifies suffering as a central aspect of all existence. It aims to produce well-being by eliminating the causes of suffering, such as desire and ignorance, achieved through the practice of Buddhist virtues, like compassion, loving-kindness, and equanimity. From the perspective of Confucianism, well-being consists in virtuous activity as a process leading to sagehood and is associated with harmonious relationships and social responsibility. According to Taoism, a life high in well-being is characterized by effortless action that is in harmony with the Tao—the natural way of the universe—and guided by spontaneous dispositions. The Christian tradition holds that the personal connection to God is a central factor of well-being, which may manifest in virtuous activity or contemplation of God. According to the teachings of Islam, well-being is achieved by dedicating one's life as much as possible to worshiping Allah and fulfilling His will, as expressed in the Quran.

Well-being is also a topic in various biological sciences with a focus on physiological factors. Research from twin studies suggests that genetic composition is an impactful determinant. Other physiological factors include neurotransmitters and hormones that impact positive feelings such as endorphin, dopamine, serotonin, oxytocin, and cortisol. Biologists are also interested in the evolutionary origins of subjective well-being. This perspective understands happiness and unhappiness not as ends but as tools to regulate behavior, guiding it toward fitness-enhancing outcomes. It holds that subjective well-being is a product of natural selection: its underlying hereditary traits are passed on to future generations if they promote survival and reproduction. In neuroscience, researchers try to uncover the neural correlates of well-being using neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging.

The problem of well-being plays a central role in medicine since medical interventions typically aim to restore, secure, and enhance patient well-being. Considerations of well-being also affect the treatment of incurable diseases, like Parkinson's disease. In such cases, therapies aim to minimize negative effects, helping patients lead productive and fulfilling lives despite their illness. However, well-being is not the only consideration governing medical interventions and the commitment to patient autonomy is another core principle. This can lead to conflicts when patients act against their self-interest and reject treatments that would improve their well-being.

History

Socrates held that wisdom and virtue are key elements of well-being.

The study of well-being originated in antiquity, often in the form of discussions on how to lead a good life. Socrates (c. 470 – c. 399 BCE) rejected power, fame, wealth, and the hedonistic pursuit of pleasure as paths to lasting happiness, arguing instead that wisdom and virtue are key elements of well-being. He held that lifelong learning and philosophical reflection cultivate an examined life, promote moral excellence, and align with the good. Influenced by Socrates, Aristotle (384–322 BCE) developed a eudaimonic theory of well-being. He maintained that well-being is the purpose of life and is achieved primarily by practicing virtues, such as acting in accordance with reason, justice, courage, and temperance. Aristotle distinguished three general factors that contribute to well-being: goods of the soul, such as intellectual and moral virtues; goods of the body, such as health; and external goods, such as wealth and good relations to others. In Hellenistic philosophy, starting in the 4th century BCE, the Epicureans and the Stoics considered well-being an internal state independent of external conditions. The Epicureans argued that pleasure is the only source of well-being and that it is best achieved through moderation and cultivation of a tranquil state of mind. The Stoics emphasized discipline and rational virtue as the key to well-being.

The avoidance of suffering is a central element of the Buddhist conception of well-being.

In ancient India, various teachings about well-being are found in the Hindu tradition, formulated in the first two millennia BCE in the Vedas, Upanishads, and the Smriti literature. They include the ideas that a person should fulfill their duty relative to their social role and stage of life, and that one should attain knowledge about how the self and the world are ultimately one. A central element of the Buddhist conception of well-being is the avoidance of suffering. The Buddha (roughly 6th century BCE) identified craving as the root cause of suffering, proposing a set of practical recommendations, such as right conduct and mindfulness, to overcome it. In ancient China, Confucius (6th to 5th century BCE) emphasized the role of social virtues in leading a good life, with a particular focus on benevolence or humaneness. In the Taoist tradition, Laozi (6th century BCE) saw living in harmony with the natural order of the universe through effortless, spontaneous action as the ideal form of life.

During the medieval period in the West, Christian thinkers associated well-being with spiritual salvation. Augustine (354–430 CE) argued that humans are not fully in control of their well-being and depend on divine grace instead. He maintained that true happiness is achievable only in the afterlife. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE) similarly emphasized the role of the divine, proposing that a beatific vision of God is the highest form of well-being. A religion-focused conception of well-being is also found in the Islamic tradition and the teachings of the Quran, which asserts that material pleasures are temporary and that genuine well-being depends on religious faith and complete dedication to Allah.

In the modern period, secularization and scientific progress shifted the focus from religious theories to naturalistic explanations, particularly starting in the late 17th century with the Age of Enlightenment. Voltaire (1694–1778), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), Denis Diderot (1713–1784), Adam Smith (1723–1790), and François-Jean de Chastellux (1734–1788) rejected a religious focus on otherworldly well-being, emphasizing instead the pursuit of earthly happiness through reason, empirical inquiry, and social progress.

Jeremy Bentham proposed the felicific calculus as a method to measure, compare, and aggregate degrees of pleasure and pain.

As the father of classical utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) proposed the felicific calculus as a method to measure, compare, and aggregate degrees of pleasure and pain, considering factors such as their intensity and duration. He also suggested a direct link between well-being and right action, arguing that individuals and governments should promote "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". His student John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) modified Bentham's idea, proposing that the contribution of pleasure to well-being depends on the quality of the pleasure. He held that higher pleasures of the mind are more valuable than lower pleasures of the body, even if they have the same intensity and duration. Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881) rejected the utilitarian pursuit of happiness and the individualist market economy associated with Adam Smith, arguing instead that a sense of community and meaningful work are essential to well-being.

The emergence of psychology as an empirical science prompted research into the internal factors of well-being, such as William James's (1842–1910) introspective research into the connection between happiness and religious experience. The psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) characterized the pursuit of pleasure and the reduction of tension as central aims of life.

After the Second World War, researchers began conducting large-scale surveys and proposed broad social indicators to track well-being within nations and in cross-national comparisons. Based on their results, Richard Easterlin (1926–2024) formulated the Easterlin paradox—the observation that richer individuals in a nation report higher happiness than poorer ones, although the average happiness of the population does not increase as the nation's average income rises.

Various models of well-being were proposed in the second half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, including Ed Diener's (1946–2021) tripartite model of subjective well-being, Carol Ryff's (born 1950) six-factor model of psychological well-being, and Martin Seligman's (born 1942) PERMA model. Derek Parfit (1942–2017) analyzed traditional theories of well-being and introduced the influential distinction into hedonism, desire theories, and objective list theories.

Another key development was the emergence of positive psychology in the late 1990s, focusing on human flourishing and optimal functioning in contrast to the traditional emphasis of psychological research on illness and dysfunction. The 20th and 21st centuries also saw growing interest in the relation between well-being, economy, and public policy, as governments and international organizations began integrating research on well-being into political decision-making.

See also

• Comfort – Sense of physical or psychological ease
• Flourishing – Positive psychological and social functioning
• Gross National Well-being – Socioeconomic development and measurement framework
• Lived experience – Phenomenological concept
• Prosperity – Concept of economies regarding wealth, health, happiness, community and spirit
• Satisfaction paradox – Phenomenon where negative circumstances have little impact on well-being
• Welfare spending – Means-oriented social benefit
• Workplace wellness – Healthy behavior in the workplace

References

Sources

• Alatartseva, Elena; Barysheva, Galina (2015). "Well-being: Subjective and Objective Aspects". Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 166: 36–42. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.479.
• Alexandrova, Anna (2017). A Philosophy for the Science of Well-being. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-930051-8.
• Allison, Scott T. (2024). "Positive Psychology and Heroism". Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer. pp. 1593–1596. ISBN 978-3-031-48129-1.
• Alorani, Omar Ismael; Alradaydeh, Mu'taz Fuad (2018). "Spiritual well-being, perceived social support, and life satisfaction among university students". International Journal of Adolescence and Youth. 23 (3): 291–298. doi:10.1080/02673843.2017.1352522.
• Alston, William (2006). "Pleasure". The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5.
• American Psychological Association (2018). "Subjective Well-Being (SWB)". APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association.
• American Psychological Association (2018a). "Emotion". APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association.
• American Psychological Association (2018b). "Life Satisfaction". APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association.
• American Psychological Association (2018c). "Mood". APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association.
• Amichai-Hamburger, Yair (2009). "Introduction". In Amichai-Hamburger, Yair (ed.). Technology and Psychological Well-being. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–8. ISBN 978-0-521-88581-2.
• Angner, Erik (2015). "40. Well-Being and Economics". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 492–503. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Arthur, Shawn; Mair, Victor H. (2017). "3. East Asian Historical Traditions of Well-Being". In Estes, Richard J.; Sirgy, M. Joseph (eds.). The Pursuit of Human Well-Being: The Untold Global History. Springer. pp. 59–82. ISBN 978-3-319-39101-4.
• Bache, Ian; Scott, Karen (2018). "Wellbeing in Politics and Policy". In Bache, Ian; Scott, Karen (eds.). The Politics of Wellbeing: Theory, Policy and Practice. Springer. pp. 1–22. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58394-5_1. ISBN 978-3-319-58394-5.
• Baril, Anne (2015). "20. Virtue and Well-Being". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 242–258. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Barker, Sue (2019). "2. Mental Wellbeing". Mental Wellbeing and Psychology: The Role of Art and History in Self Discovery and Creation. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-78461-3.
• Bauer, Brian W.; Schmidt, Norman B. (2025). "Editorial Overview: Cognitive Biases and Influence Strategies in Mental Health Research". Current Opinion in Psychology. 64 102025. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102025. PMID 40154208.
• Besser, Lorraine L. (2020). "5. Happiness as Satisfaction". The Philosophy of Happiness: An Interdisciplinary Introduction. Routledge. pp. 58–70. ISBN 978-1-315-28367-8.
• Besser-Jones, Lorraine (2015). "15. Eudaimonism". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 187–196. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Bharti, Jaya (2024). "2. Effect of Improper Waste Disposal on Environmental, Physical, and Emotional Well-Being of Human Beings". In Rajpal, Ankur; Choudhury, Moharana; Goswami, Srijan; Chakravorty, Arghya; Raghavan, Vimala (eds.). Waste Management and Treatment: Advances and Innovations. CRC Press. pp. 26–38. ISBN 978-1-000-95217-9.
• Bhatnagar, Tithi (2023). Subjective Well-Being in the Indian Context: Concept, Measure and Index. Springer Nature Singapore. ISBN 978-981-99-6526-7.
• Bishop, Michael (2012). "The Network Theory of Well-Being: An Introduction". Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication. 7 (1). doi:10.4148/biyclc.v7i0.1773.
• Bjørndal, Ludvig Daae; Nes, Ragnhild Bang; Czajkowski, Nikolai; Røysamb, Espen (2023). "The structure of well-being: a single underlying factor with genetic and environmental influences". Quality of Life Research. 32 (10): 2805–2816. doi:10.1007/s11136-023-03437-7. hdl:10852/111072. PMC 10199429. PMID 37209357.
• Boelhouwer, Jeroen; Noll, Heinz-Herbert (2023). "Objective Quality of Life". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 4783–4785. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Bradford, Gwen; Keller, Simon (2015). "22. Well-Being and Achievement". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 271–280. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Bradley, Ben (2015). "26. Well-Being and Death". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 320–328. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Bradley, Ben (2015a). Well-being. Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-6272-5.
• Bramble, Ben (2020). "Welfarism". In LaFollette, Hugh (ed.). International Encyclopedia of Ethics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-6707-2.
• Busseri, Michael A.; Sadava, Stan W. (2011). "A Review of the Tripartite Structure of Subjective Well-Being: Implications for Conceptualization, Operationalization, Analysis, and Synthesis". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 15 (3): 290–314. doi:10.1177/1088868310391271. PMID 21131431.
• Butenaitė, Joana; Sondaitė, Jolanta; Mockus, Antanas (2016). "Components of Existential Crisis: A Theoretical Analysis". International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach. 18: 9–27. doi:10.7220/2345-024X.18.1.
• Campbell, Stephen M. (2015). "33. The Concept of Well-Being". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 402–414. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Capio, Catherine M.; Sit, Cindy H. P.; Abernethy, Bruce (2023). "Physical Well-Being". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 5179–5181. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Chan, Alan (2018). "Laozi". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 May 2023. Retrieved 20 September 2024.
• Chasco, Coro (2023). "Objective Index of Quality of Life for Urban Areas". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 4779–4783. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-17299-1_1985. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Cicognani, Elvira (2023). "Social Well-Being". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 6714–6717. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Clark-Decès, Isabelle; Smith, Frederick M. (2017). "4. Well-Being in India: A Historical and Anthropological Report". In Estes, Richard J.; Sirgy, M. Joseph (eds.). The Pursuit of Human Well-Being: The Untold Global History. Springer. pp. 83–108. ISBN 978-3-319-39101-4.
• Cloninger, C. Robert (2004). Feeling Good: The Science of Well-Being. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505137-7.
• Cohn, Michael A.; Fredrickson, Barbara L. (2010). "In Search of Durable Positive Psychology Interventions: Predictors and Consequences of Long-Term Positive Behavior Change". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 5 (5): 355–366. doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.508883.
• Colman, Andrew M. (2015). "Positive Psychology". A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-965768-1.
• Cordella, Marisa; Poiani, Aldo (2021). Fulfilling Ageing: Psychosocial and Communicative Perspectives on Ageing. Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-60071-6.
• Crisp, Roger (2021). "Well-Being". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 15 December 2024.
• Dasgupta, Partha (2001). Human Well-Being and the Natural Environment. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924788-2.
• Davidson, Richard J. (2005). "Well-Being and Affective Style: Neural Substrates and Biobehavioural Correlates". In Huppert, Felicia A.; Baylis, Nick; Keverne, Barry (eds.). The Science of Well-being. Oxford University Press. pp. 107–140. ISBN 978-0-19-856752-3.
• de Oliveira Cardoso, Nicolas; Markus, Juliana; de Lara Machado, Wagner; Guilherme, Alexandre Anselmo (2023). "Measuring Financial Well-Being: A Systematic Review of Psychometric Instruments". Journal of Happiness Studies. 24 (8): 2913–2939. doi:10.1007/s10902-023-00697-5.
• Degenhardt, M. A. B. (2019). Education and the Value of Knowledge. Routledge. pp. 1–6. ISBN 978-1-000-62799-2. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
• Denier, Yvonne (2007). "Autonomy in Dependence: A Defence of Careful Solidarity". In Nys, Thomas; Denier, Yvonne; Vandevelde, Toon (eds.). Autonomy & Paternalism: Reflections on the Theory and Practice of Health Care. Peeters Publishers. pp. 93–112. ISBN 978-90-429-1880-1.
• Desjardins, Richard (2008). "Editorial". European Journal of Education. 43 (1): 7–9. doi:10.1111/j.1465-3435.2007.00339.x.
• Dfarhud, Dariush; Malmir, Maryam; Khanahmadi, Mohammad (2014). "Happiness & Health: The Biological Factors - Systematic Review Article". Iranian Journal of Public Health. 43 (11): 1468–1477. PMC 4449495. PMID 26060713.
• Diener, Ed (1984). "Subjective Well-Being" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 95 (3): 542–575. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542. PMID 6399758.
• Dorsey, Dale (2012). The Basic Minimum: A Welfarist Approach. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01711-5.
• Dorsey, Dale (2015). "34. Welfarism". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 417–428. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Dsouza, Josmitha Maria; Chakraborty, Anirban; Kamath, Neetha (2023). "Intergenerational communication and elderly well-being". Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health. 20 101251. doi:10.1016/j.cegh.2023.101251.
• Dullien, Sebastian; Goodwin, Neva; Harris, Jonathan; Nelson, Julie; Roach, Brian; Torras, Mariano (2017). Macroeconomics in Context: A European Perspective. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-28966-1.
• Dung, Leonard (2023). "Dimensions of animal wellbeing". Philosophy and the Mind Sciences. 4. doi:10.33735/phimisci.2023.9878.
• Easterlin, Richard A.; O'Connor, Kelsey J. (2022). "The Easterlin Paradox". In Zimmermann, Klaus F. (ed.). Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_184-2. ISBN 978-3-319-57365-6.
• Eatough, Virginia (2018). "'What can't be cured must be endured': living with Parkinson's disease". In Galvin, Kathleen (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 173–181. ISBN 978-1-317-53252-1.
• Estes, Richard J. (2017). "The Search for Well-Being: From Ancient to Modern Times". In Estes, Richard J.; Sirgy, M. Joseph (eds.). The Pursuit of Human Well-Being: The Untold Global History. Springer. pp. 3–30. ISBN 978-3-319-39101-4.
• Fehr, Beverley; Harasymchuk, Cheryl (2017). "The Role of Friendships in Well-Being". In Maddux, James E. (ed.). Subjective Well-Being and Life Satisfaction (1 ed.). Routledge. pp. 103–128. ISBN 978-1-351-23187-9.
• Feldman, Fred (2001). "Hedonism". In Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Ethics. Routledge. pp. 662–669. ISBN 978-1-135-35096-3.
• Feldman, Fred (2004). Pleasure and the Good Life: Concerning the Nature, Varieties and Plausibility of Hedonism. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926516-9.
• Fidelis, Ariana; Mendonça, Helenides (2021). "Well-Being of Unemployed People: Relations with Work Values and Time of Unemployment". Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas). 38. doi:10.1590/1982-0275202138e190014.
• Fischer, Edward F.; Victor, Sam (2023). "Happiness and Well-Being". In Laidlaw, James (ed.). The Cambridge Handbook for the Anthropology of Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 335–358. ISBN 978-1-108-48280-6.
• Fisher, Zoe; Wilkie, Lowri; Hamill, Alexandra; Kemp, Andrew H. (2024). "Theories of wellbeing, practical applications and implications for coaching". The Health and Wellbeing Coaches' Handbook (1 ed.). Routledge. pp. 20–37. doi:10.4324/9781003319016-4. ISBN 978-1-003-31901-6.
• Fletcher, Guy (2015). "Introduction". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 1–6. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Fletcher, Guy (2016). The Philosophy of Well-Being: An Introduction (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-81834-7.
• Frijters, Paul; Krekel, Christian; Sanchis, Raúl; Santini, Ziggi Ivan (2024). "The WELLBY: A New Measure of Social Value and Progress". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 11 (1). doi:10.1057/s41599-024-03229-5.
• Gallagher, Matthew W. (2009). "Well-Being". In Lopez, Shane J. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 1030–1034. ISBN 978-1-4051-6125-1.
• Gallagher, Matthew W.; Lopez, Shane J.; Preacher, Kristopher J. (2009). "The Hierarchical Structure of Well-Being". Journal of Personality. 77 (4): 1025–1050. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00573.x. PMC 3865980. PMID 19558444.
• Gallegos-Riofrío, Carlos Andres; Arab, Hassan; Carrasco-Torrontegui, Amaya; Gould, Rachelle K. (2022). "Chronic deficiency of diversity and pluralism in research on nature's mental health effects: A planetary health problem". Current Research in Environmental Sustainability. 4. doi:10.1016/j.crsust.2022.100148.
• Galtung, Johan (2005). "Meeting Basic Needs: Peace and Development". In Huppert, Felicia A.; Baylis, Nick; Keverne, Barry (eds.). The Science of Well-being. Oxford University Press. pp. 475–502. ISBN 978-0-19-856752-3.
• Galvin, Kathleen (2018). "Introduction". In Galvin, Kathleen (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-1-317-53252-1.
• Gomez-Gomez, Alex; Martin, Blanca Montero-San; Haro, Noemí; Pozo, Oscar J. (2023). "Determination of Well-Being-Related Markers in Nails by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 267 115586. Bibcode:2023EcoES.26715586G. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115586. hdl:10230/61376. PMID 37897979.
• Gordon, Emma C. "Understanding in Epistemology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 22 August 2024. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
• Gowans, Christopher W. (2015). "6. Buddhist Understandings of Well-Being". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 70–80. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Graham, Carol (2012). Happiness Around the World: The Paradox of Happy Peasants and Miserable Millionaires. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960628-3.
• Groll, Daniel (2015). "41. Medicine and Well-Being". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 504–516. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Haybron, Dan (2020). "Happiness". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 19 October 2024.
• Hazlett, Allan (2015). "21. Epistemic Goods". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 259–270. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Headey, Bruce (2007). "The Set-Point Theory of Well-Being: Negative Results and Consequent Revisions". Social Indicators Research. 85 (3): 389–403. doi:10.1007/s11205-007-9134-2.
• Headey, Bruce; Holmström, Elsie; Wearing, Alexander (1984). "Well-being and ill-being: Different dimensions?". Social Indicators Research. 14 (2). Springer: 115–139. doi:10.1007/BF00293406.
• Heathwood, Chris (2013). "Hedonism". The International Encyclopedia of Ethics (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee780. ISBN 978-1-4051-8641-4.
• Heathwood, Chris (2015). "8. Monism and Pluralism About Value". In Hirose, Iwao; Olson, Jonas (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory. Oxford University Press. pp. 136–157. ISBN 978-0-19-022143-0.
• Heathwood, Chris (2021). Happiness and Well-Being. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-58642-9.
• Helseth, Sølvi; Haraldstad, Kristin (2014). "Child Well-Being". In Michalos, Alex C. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 830–834. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_339. ISBN 978-94-007-0753-5.
• Hodge, Adam S.; Hook, Joshua N.; Kim, Jichan J.; Mosher, David K.; McLaughlin, Aaron T.; Davis, Don E.; Van Tongeren, Daryl R. (2023). "10. Positive Psychology and Christianity". In Davis, Edward B.; Worthington, Everett L.; Schnitker, Sarah A. (eds.). Handbook of Positive Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality. Springer. pp. 147–162. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10274-5_10. ISBN 978-3-031-10273-8.
• Hooker, Brad (2015). "The Elements of Well-Being". Journal of Practical Ethics. 3 (1): 15–35.
• Huppert, Felicia A.; Baylis, Nick; Keverne, Barry (2005). "Preface". In Huppert, Felicia A.; Baylis, Nick; Keverne, Barry (eds.). The Science of Well-being. Oxford University Press. p. v. ISBN 978-0-19-856752-3.
• Hurka, Thomas (2006a). "Intrinsic Value". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 4 (2nd ed.). Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-866072-1.
• Huta, Veronika (2013). "16. What Makes for a Life Well Lived? Autonomy and its Relation to Full Functioning and Organismic Wellness". In David, Susan A.; Boniwell, Ilona; Ayers, Amanda Conley (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Happiness. Oxford University Press. pp. 201–214. ISBN 978-0-19-175103-5.
• Hyland, Siobhan; Jackson, Paul; Rothery, Mark (2025). "Introduction". In Hyland, Siobhan; Jackson, Paul; Rothery, Mark (eds.). Well-being Past and Present: The History and Contemporary Practice of a Cultural Phenomenon in Britain. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-1-350-49985-0.
• Jarden, Aaron; Roache, Annalise (2023). "What Is Wellbeing?". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 20 (6): 5006. doi:10.3390/ijerph20065006. PMC 10049282. PMID 36981914.
• Jeske, Diane (2015). "19. Friendship and Well-Being". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 233–241. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Johnson, Danielle (2009). "Pleasure". In Lopez, Shane J. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 704–707. ISBN 978-1-4051-6125-1.
• Joshanloo, Mohsen (2017). "5. Islamic Conceptions of Well-Being". In Estes, Richard J.; Sirgy, M. Joseph (eds.). The Pursuit of Human Well-Being: The Untold Global History. Springer. pp. 109–134. ISBN 978-3-319-39101-4.
• Kaczmarek, Lukasz Dominik (2023). "Positive Psychology". In Glăveanu, Vlad Petre (ed.). The Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Possible. Springer. pp. 1050–1057. ISBN 978-3-030-90913-0.
• Katz, Leonard D. (2016). "Pleasure". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 18 October 2024.
• Kauppinen, Antti (2015). "23. Meaningfulness". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 281–291. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Kekes, John (2005). "Wisdom". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7.
• Kelly, Brendan (2021). "1. Who We are". The Science of Happiness: The Six Principles of a Happy Life and the Seven Strategies for Achieving It. Gill Books. ISBN 978-0-7171-9009-6.
• Kettlewell, Nathan; Morris, Richard W.; Ho, Nick; Cobb-Clark, Deborah A.; Cripps, Sally; Glozier, Nick (2020). "The differential impact of major life events on cognitive and affective wellbeing". SSM – Population Health. 10 100533. doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100533. hdl:10453/139800. PMC 6939089. PMID 31909168.
• Kim, Richard (2015). "4. Well-Being and Confucianism". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 40–55. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• King, Marcie L. (2019). "The Neural Correlates of Well-Being: A Systematic Review of the Human Neuroimaging and Neuropsychological Literature". Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. 19 (4): 779–796. doi:10.3758/s13415-019-00720-4. PMC 6713599. PMID 31062291.
• Krause, Peter (2016). "Quality of Life and Inequality". In Bruni, Luigino; Porta, Pier Luigi (eds.). Handbook of Research Methods and Applications in Happiness and Quality of Life. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78347-117-1.
• Kruger, Erika (2019). "Well-Being for Whom? Unpacking the Teacher Well-Being Discourse of the South African Department of Basic Education". South African Journal of Education. 39 (4): 1–8. doi:10.15700/saje.v39n4a1866.
• Kubzansky, Laura D. (2020). "Afterword: The Future of Well-Being". In Plough, Alonzo L. (ed.). Well-Being: Expanding the Definition of Progress: Insights From Practitioners, Researchers, and Innovators From Around the Globe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-008051-8.
• Lauinger, William (2015). "7. Well-Being in the Christian Tradition". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 81–94. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Layard, Richard; Neve, Jan-Emmanuel De (2023). Wellbeing: Science and Policy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-29895-7.
• Lazari-Radek, Katarzyna de (2024). The Philosophy of Pleasure: An Introduction. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-60594-6.
• Lee, Seung Jong; Kim, Yunji (2014). "Searching for the Meaning of Community Well-Being". Community Well-Being and Community Development: Conceptions and Applications. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-12421-6.
• Lee, Seung Jong; Kim, Yunji; Phillips, Rhonda (2014). "Exploring the Intersection of Community Well-Being and Community Development". Community Well-Being and Community Development: Conceptions and Applications. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-12421-6.
• Lee, Matthew T.; Kubzansky, Laura D.; VanderWeele, Tyler J. (2021). "Introduction". In Lee, Matthew T.; Kubzansky, Laura D.; VanderWeele, Tyler J. (eds.). Measuring Well-being: Interdisciplinary Perspectives from the Social Sciences and the Humanities. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-0-19-751253-1.
• Lee, J.; Žarnic, Ž. (2024). "The Impact Of Digital Technologies On Well-Being: Main Insights From The Literature". OECD Papers On Well-Being And Inequalities (29). OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/cb173652-en.
• Lin, Eden (2015). "27. Monism and Pluralism". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 331–341. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Lin, Eden (2022). "Well-being". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-L176-1. ISBN 978-0-415-25069-6. Retrieved 16 December 2024.
• Lips, Hilary; Gordon, Alynn (2023). "Women's Well-Being". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 7762–7768. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Luhmann, Maike; Krasko, Julia; Terwiel, Sophia (2021). "Subjective Well-Being as a Dynamic Construct". In Rauthmann, John F. (ed.). The Handbook of Personality Dynamics and Processes. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-813996-7.
• Luper, Steven (2009). The Philosophy of Death. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88249-1.
• Ma, Jiazheng; Guo, Bin; Yu, Yanghang (2022). "Perception of Official Corruption, Satisfaction With Government Performance, and Subjective Wellbeing—An Empirical Study From China". Frontiers in Psychology. 13 748704. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.748704. PMC 9368771. PMID 35967643.
• Maddux, James E. (2024). "1. Subjective Well-Being and Life Satisfaction". In Maddux, James E. (ed.). Subjective Well-Being and Life Satisfaction: A Social Psychological Perspective. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-040-18620-6.
• Magnusson, Erik; Krepski, Heather (2023). "Three Theories of Well-Being and Their Implications for School Education;". In Falkenberg, Thomas (ed.). Well-Being and Well-Becoming in Schools. University of Toronto Press. pp. 23–40. ISBN 978-1-4875-4352-5.
• Markides, Kyriakos S. (2000). "Quality of Life". In Borgatta, Edgar F.; Montgomery, Rhonda J. V. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Sociology (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-864853-8.
• Marshall, Colin (2018). Compassionate Moral Realism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-253756-0.
• Mascherini, Massimiliano (2023). "Well-Being at Work". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 7660–7666. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Mathews, Gordon; Izquierdo, Carolina (2010). "Introduction: Anthropology, Happiness, and Well-Being". In Mathews, Gordon; Izquierdo, Carolina (eds.). Pursuits of happiness: well-being in anthropological perspective (1st ed.). Berghahn. ISBN 978-1-84545-448-7.
• McCain, Roger A. (2008). "Welfare Economics". In Darity, William A. (ed.). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-866117-9.
• McCormick, Miriam Schleifer (2014). Believing Against the Evidence: Agency and the Ethics of Belief. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-68268-1.
• McLean, Iain; McMillan, Alistair (2009). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-101827-5.
• McMahon, Darrin M. (2013). "19. The Pursuit of Happiness in History". In David, Susan A.; Boniwell, Ilona; Ayers, Amanda Conley (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Happiness. Oxford University Press. pp. 252–262. ISBN 978-0-19-175103-5.
• Mendelson, Morton J.; Aboud, Frances E. (1999). "Measuring Friendship Quality in Late Adolescents and Young Adults: McGill Friendship Questionnaires". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement. 31 (2): 130–132. doi:10.1037/h0087080.
• Michalos, Alex C.; Weijers, Daniel (2017). "2. Western Historical Traditions of Well-Being". In Estes, Richard J.; Sirgy, M. Joseph (eds.). The Pursuit of Human Well-Being: The Untold Global History. Springer. pp. 31–59. ISBN 978-3-319-39101-4.
• Miettinen, Olli S.; Flegel, Kenneth M. (2003). "Elementary Concepts of Medicine: II. Health, Health fields, Public Health". Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice. 9 (3): 311–313. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2753.2003.00415.x. PMID 12895145.
• Miller, Christian (2011). "Guilt, Embarrassment, and the Existence of Character Traits". In Brooks, Thom (ed.). New Waves in Ethics. Springer. pp. 150–187. ISBN 978-0-230-30588-5.
• Mitchell, Jonathan (2021). "Affective Shifts: Mood, Emotion and Well-Being". Synthese. 199 (5–6): 11793–11820. doi:10.1007/s11229-021-03312-3.
• Moore, Andrew (2019). "Hedonism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
• Muhajarine, Nazeem (2023). "Health Determinants". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 2975–2978. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Murphy, Dominic; Donovan, Caitrin; Smart, Gemma Lucy (2020). "Mental Health and Well-Being in Philosophy". In Sholl, Jonathan; Rattan, Suresh I. S. (eds.). Explaining Health Across the Sciences. Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-52663-4.
• Nesse, Randolph M. (2005). "1. Natural Selection and the Elusiveness of Happiness". In Huppert, Felicia A.; Baylis, Nick; Keverne, Barry (eds.). The Science of Well-being. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–34. ISBN 978-0-19-856752-3.
• Ng, Yew-Kwang (1995). "Towards Welfare Biology: Evolutionary Economics of Animal Consciousness and Suffering". Biology & Philosophy. 10 (3): 255–285. doi:10.1007/BF00852469.
• Niemiec, Christopher P. (2023). "Eudaimonic Well-Being". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 2212–2214. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Norman, Richard (2005). "Happiness". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7.
• O'Donohue, William; Kitchener, Richard F. (1996). "Introduction". In O'Donohue, William; Kitchener, Richard F. (eds.). The Philosophy of Psychology. Sage. pp. xiii–xix. ISBN 978-0-7619-5305-0.
• O'Keefe, Tim (2015). "3. Hedonistic theories of Well-Being in Antiquity". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 29–39. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Oades, Lindsay G.; Mossman, Lara (2017). "The Science of Wellbeing and Positive Psychology". In Slade, Mike; Oades, Lindsay; Jarden, Aaron (eds.). Wellbeing, Recovery and Mental Health. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–23. ISBN 978-1-107-54305-8.
• Ocasal, Diva Liceth Mendoza; Martínez, Maira Alejandra González; Santos, Nelly Quirvan (2024). "Subjective Well-Being and Labor Productivity: A Global and Organizational Perspective". Revista de Administração de Empresas. 64 (5). doi:10.1590/S0034-759020240504.
• OECD (2011). How's Life? Measuring Well-being. OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/9789264121164-en. ISBN 978-92-64-12116-4.
• OECD (2013). How's Life? 2013: Measuring Well-being. OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/9789264201392-en. ISBN 978-92-64-22009-6.
• OECD (2023). "UK Measures of National Well-being". OECD. Retrieved 25 December 2024.
• OED Staff (2024). "Well-being, n". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/9602520444.
• Orsi, Francesco (2015). Value Theory. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4725-2408-9.
• Pallies, Daniel (2021). "An Honest Look at Hybrid Theories of Pleasure". Philosophical Studies. 178 (3): 887–907. doi:10.1007/s11098-020-01464-5.
• Park, Crystal L.; Kubzansky, Laura D.; Chafouleas, Sandra M.; Davidson, Richard J.; Keltner, Dacher; Parsafar, Parisa; Conwell, Yeates; Martin, Michelle Y.; Hanmer, Janel; Wang, Kuan Hong (2023). "Emotional Well-Being: What It Is and Why It Matters". Affective Science. 4 (1): 10–20. doi:10.1007/s42761-022-00163-0. PMC 10104995. PMID 37070009.
• Pedrotti, Jennifer Teramoto; Lopez, Shane J.; McDermott, Ryon C.; Snyder, C. R. (2024). Positive Psychology: The Scientific and Practical Explorations of Human Strengths. Sage. ISBN 978-1-0718-1922-7.
• Phillips, Rhonda; Wong, Cecilia (2016). "Introduction". In Phillips, Rhonda; Wong, Cecilia (eds.). Handbook of Community Well-Being Research. Springer. ISBN 978-94-024-0878-2.
• Pritchard, Duncan (2013). What Is This Thing Called Knowledge?. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-57367-7.
• Proctor, Carmel (2023). "Subjective Well-Being (SWB)". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 6952–6956. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Raibley, Jason (2015). "28. Atomism and Holism in the Theory of Personal Well-Being". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 342–354. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Rashid, Tayyab; Niemiec, Ryan M. (2023). "Character Strengths". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 723–730. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Rietveld, Cornelius A.; Cesarini, David; Benjamin, Daniel J.; Koellinger, Philipp D.; De Neve, Jan-Emmanuel; Tiemeier, Henning; Johannesson, Magnus; Magnusson, Patrik K. E.; Pedersen, Nancy L.; Krueger, Robert F.; Bartels, Meike (2013). "Molecular genetics and subjective well-being". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (24): 9692–9697. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.9692R. doi:10.1073/pnas.1222171110. PMC 3683731. PMID 23708117.
• Rodman, George; Fry, Katherine G. (2009). "Communication Technology and Psychological Well-being: Yin, Yang, and the Golden Mean of Media Effects". In Amichai-Hamburger, Yair (ed.). Technology and Psychological Well-being. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88581-2.
• Rojas, Mariano (2017). "The Subjective Object of Well-Being Studies: Well-Being as the Experience of Being Well". In Brulé, Gaël; Maggino, Filomena (eds.). Metrics of Subjective Well-Being: Limits and Improvements. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-61810-4.
• Rokne, Berit; Wahl, Astrid (2023). "Health". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 2957–2959. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Rønnow-Rasmussen, Toni (2015). "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Value". In Hirose, Iwao; Olson, Jonas (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-022143-0.
• Salagame, Kiran Kumar K. (2013). "Well-being from the Hindu/Sanātana Dharma Perspective". In Boniwell, Ilona; David, Susan A.; Ayers, Amanda Conley (eds.). Oxford Handbook of Happiness. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199557257.013.0029. ISBN 978-0-19-175103-5.
• Sarch, Alex (2015). "39. Well-Being and the Law". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 479–491. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Saritoprak, Seyma N.; Abu-Raiya, Hisham (2023). "12. Living the Good Life: An Islamic Perspective on Positive Psychology". In Davis, Edward B.; Worthington, Everett L.; Schnitker, Sarah A. (eds.). Handbook of Positive Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality. Springer. pp. 179–194. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10274-5_12. ISBN 978-3-031-10273-8.
• Schroeder, S. Andrew (2015). "18. Health, Disability, and Well-Being". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 221–232. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Schroeder, Mark (2021). "Value Theory". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 26 August 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
• Scruton, Roger (2007). The Palgrave Macmillan Dictionary of Political Thought. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-62509-9.
• Segall, Seth Zuihō; Kristeller, Jean L. (2023). "14. Positive Psychology and Buddhism". In Davis, Edward B.; Worthington, Everett L.; Schnitker, Sarah A. (eds.). Handbook of Positive Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality. Springer. pp. 211–226. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10274-5_14. ISBN 978-3-031-10273-8.
• Seligman, Martin E. P. (2011). Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-9076-0.
• Seligman, Martin E. P.; Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly (2000). "Positive Psychology: An Introduction". American Psychologist. 55 (1): 5–14. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.183.6660. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.5. PMID 11392865. S2CID 14783574.
• Shriver, Adam (2014). "The Asymmetrical Contributions of Pleasure and Pain to Subjective Well-Being". Review of Philosophy and Psychology. 5 (1): 135–153. doi:10.1007/s13164-013-0171-2.
• Singh, Kamlesh; Raina, Mahima; Oman, Doug (2023). "13. Positive Psychology and Hinduism". In Davis, Edward B.; Worthington, Everett L.; Schnitker, Sarah A. (eds.). Handbook of Positive Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality. Springer. pp. 195–210. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10274-5_13. ISBN 978-3-031-10274-5.
• Slingerland, Edward (2007). Effortless Action: Wu-wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-987457-6. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
• Slote, Michael (2010). Essays on the History of Ethics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539155-8.
• Smith, Nicholas Ryan (2020). "9. Well-Being, Narrative Value, and Virtue Ethics". In Ulatowski, Joseph; Zyl, Liezl van (eds.). Virtue, Narrative, and Self: Explorations of Character in the Philosophy of Mind and Action. Routledge. pp. 151–169. ISBN 978-1-000-22258-6.
• Smith, Courtland; Clay, Patricia (2010). "Measuring Subjective and Objective Well-being: Analyses from Five Marine Commercial Fisheries". Human Organization. 69 (2): 158–168. doi:10.17730/humo.69.2.b83x6t44878u4782 (inactive 7 May 2026).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2026 (link)
• Sollis, Kate; Biddle, Nicholas; Maulana, Herdiyan; Yap, Mandy; Campbell, Paul (2024). "Measuring Wellbeing Across Culture and Context – are we Getting it Right? Evaluating the Variation in Wellbeing Conceptualisations Throughout the World". Social Indicators Research. 174 (1): 123–155. doi:10.1007/s11205-024-03382-z.
• Sora, Beatriz; Caballer, Amparo; García-Buades, M. Esther (2021). "Human Resource Practices and Employee Wellbeing From a Gender Perspective: The Role of Organizational Justice". Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología. 53: 37–46. doi:10.14349/rlp.2021.v53.5.
• Stoll, Laura (2014). "2. A Short History of Wellbeing Research". In McDaid, David; Cooper, Cary L. (eds.). Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide, Economics of Wellbeing. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-60838-8.
• Sun, Rachel C. F.; Shek, Daniel T. L. (2023). "Well-Being, Student". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 7697–7702. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Tavanti, Marco (2023). Developing Sustainability in Organizations: A Values-Based Approach. Springer. ISBN 978-3-031-36907-0.
• Temkin, Benjamín; Lara Escalante, Mónica María; Castellanos Cereceda, Noé Roberto (2025). "Citizen Well-Being and Democracy: the Determinants of Objective and Subjective Well-Being, and their Impact on Democracy Worldwide: Bienestar ciudadano y democracia: los determinantes del bienestar objetivo y subjetivo, y su impacto en la democracia en el mundo". Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales. 70 (255). doi:10.22201/fcpys.2448492xe.2025.255.87973.
• Tiberius, Valerie (2015). "Prudential Value". In Hirose, Iwao; Olson, Jonas (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory. Oxford University Press. pp. 158–174. ISBN 978-0-19-022143-0.
• Tiberius, Valerie; Haybron, Daniel M. (2022). "Prudential Psychology: Theory, Method, and Measurement". In Vargas, Manuel; Doris, John M. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Moral Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-887171-2.
• Tilley, John J. (2012). "Hedonism". In Chadwick, Ruth (ed.). Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics (PDF). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-373932-2.
• Tirch, Dennis; Silberstein, Laura R.; Kolts, Russell L. (2016). Buddhist Psychology and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: A Clinician's Guide. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-3019-9.
• Tiwald, Justin (2015). "5. Well-Being and Daoism". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being. Routledge. pp. 56–69. ISBN 978-1-317-40265-7.
• Toscano, Walter N. (2018). "Relationshipt Between Physical Activity, Health, and Quality of Life from the Perspective of the Hippocratic Theory". In Vega, Lía Rodriguez de la; Toscano, Walter N. (eds.). Handbook of Leisure, Physical Activity, Sports, Recreation and Quality of Life. Springer. pp. 293–302. ISBN 978-3-319-75529-8.
• Tov, William; Diener, Ed (2013). "Subjective Wellbeing". In Keith, Kenneth Dwight (ed.). The encyclopedia of cross-cultural psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-33989-3.
• Uslu, Osman (2025). "Understanding Digital Wellbeing: Impacts, Strategies, and the Path to Healthier Technology Practices". Discover Social Science and Health. 5 (1). doi:10.1007/s44155-025-00259-5.
• VanderWeele, Tyler J. (2021). "Measures of Community Well-Being: A Template". In Lee, Matthew T.; Kubzansky, Laura D.; VanderWeele, Tyler J. (eds.). Measuring Well-being: Interdisciplinary Perspectives from the Social Sciences and the Humanities. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-751253-1.
• Veenhoven, Ruut (1996). "The Study of Life-Satisfaction". A Comparative Study of Satisfaction with Life in Europe (PDF). Eötvös University Press. ISBN 978-963-463-081-4.
• Veenhoven, Ruut (2008). "Sociological Theories of Subjective Well-Being". In Eid, Michael; Larsen, Randy J. (eds.). The Science of Subjective Well-Being. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-073-2.
• Veenhoven, Ruut (2023a). "Freedom and Quality of Life". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 2593–2596. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Veenhoven, Ruut (2023b). "Well-Being of Nations". In Maggino, Filomena (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer. pp. 7683–7686. ISBN 978-3-031-17298-4.
• Vittersø, Joar (2009). "Hedonics". In Lopez, Shane J. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 473–478. ISBN 978-1-118-34467-5.
• Volkov, A. D.; Tishkov, S. V.; Karginova-Gubinova, V. V.; Kolesnikov, N. G. (2023). "Environmental Well-Being of the Russian Arctic Regions: Official Data and Population Estimates". Regional Research of Russia. 13 (1): S141–S155. doi:10.1134/S2079970523600154.
• Voukelatou, Vasiliki; Gabrielli, Lorenzo; Miliou, Ioanna; Cresci, Stefano; Sharma, Rajesh; Tesconi, Maurizio; Pappalardo, Luca (2021). "Measuring objective and subjective well-being: dimensions and data sources". International Journal of Data Science and Analytics. 11 (4): 279–309. doi:10.1007/s41060-020-00224-2. hdl:11568/1053970.
• Ward, Joey; Lyall, Laura M.; Cullen, Breda; Strawbridge, Rona J.; Zhu, Xingxing; Stanciu, Ioana; Aman, Alisha; Niedzwiedz, Claire L.; Anderson, Jana; Bailey, Mark E. S.; Lyall, Donald M.; Pell, Jill P. (2023). "Consistent effects of the genetics of happiness across the lifespan and ancestries in multiple cohorts". Scientific Reports. 13 (1) 17262. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1317262W. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43193-9. PMC 10570373. PMID 37828061.
• Warren, Samantha (2010). "What's Wrong with Being Positive?". In Linley, P. Alex; Harrington, Susan; Garcea, Nicola (eds.). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work. Oxford University Press. pp. 313–322. ISBN 978-0-19-533544-6.
• Waterman, Alan S. (2025). Flow Theory Re-Envisioned: A Conceptual Analysis and Response to Critiques. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-781345-4.
• Weijers, Dan. "Hedonism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 13 October 2024.
• Western, Mark; Tomaszewski, Wojtek (2016). "Subjective Wellbeing, Objective Wellbeing and Inequality in Australia". PLOS ONE. 11 (10) e0163345. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1163345W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0163345. PMC 5047468. PMID 27695042.
• White, Mathew A. (2023). "1. Where to from Here? Priorities for Wellbeing Education, Pedagogy and COVID-19 Recovery". In White, Mathew A.; McCallum, Faye; Boyle, Christopher (eds.). New Research and Possibilities in Wellbeing Education. Springer Nature Singapore. ISBN 978-981-99-5609-8.
• Wieland, Georg (2002). "Happiness (Ia IIae, qq. 1–5)". In Pope, Stephen J. (ed.). The Ethics of Aquinas. Translated by Kaplan, Grant. Georgetown University Press. pp. 57–68. ISBN 978-0-87840-888-7.
• Yalom, Irvin D. (2020). Existential Psychotherapy. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-1-5416-4744-2.
• Yamaguchi, Mami; Halberstadt, Jamin (2011). "It's All About Me: Maladaptive Self-focused Attention as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Extrinsic Goals and Well-Being". In Brdar, Ingrid (ed.). The Human Pursuit of Well-Being: A Cultural Approach. Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-1375-8.
• Zagzebski, Linda (2004). "Morality and Religion". In Wainwright, William (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Religion. Oxford University Press. pp. 344–365. ISBN 978-0-19-803158-1.
• Zelenski, John M. (2020). Positive psychology: the science of well-being. Sage. ISBN 978-1-4739-0214-5.
• Zulkarnain, Zulkarnain; Nasution, Indri Kemala; Sutatminingsih, Raras; Sari, Rifka (2025). "Exploring the Role of Self-Control in the Relationship Between Happiness and Internet Addiction Among Teenagers". South African Journal of Education. 45 (Supplement 2). doi:10.15700/saje.v45ns2a2568.